Ethnic Relations in Northeast China

西藏和其他藏族聚居地在长期历史发展过程中，形成了大量有关西藏和藏族各类事务的档案，其形成时间主要是清代和民国时期，尤以民国时期档案最多，并集中典藏在中国第一、第二历史档案馆，以及西藏和其他藏族集中聚居的四川、青海、甘肃、云南等省各档案馆、图书馆中。中国第一历史档案馆所藏清代西藏及藏事档案有3万余件，主要是清朝中央政府对西藏及藏族聚居地区的施政文书，其中有皇帝册封达赖和班禅等人的诏书、敕谕，治理西藏各种谕令；历世达赖喇嘛、班禅额尔德尼、章嘉呼图克图、哲布尊丹巴等大活佛等上呈皇帝的奏疏、表文；清驻藏办事大臣、西宁办事大臣、库伦办事大臣及各地督抚、将军等大员和军机处、内阁、理藩院等部院衙门，为处理西藏及藏事上呈皇帝的题奏本章；有关衙门记录西藏重大事务的档册，以及西藏及藏族聚居地区经济、社会、文化等方面的情况。这些档案主要用汉文和满文书写，也有少量是用藏文和蒙古文书写，档案形成时间起于天命七年（1622年），迄于宣统三年（1911年）。中国第二历史档案馆所藏西藏和藏事档案在3万件以上，档案形成时间为清光绪十四年（1888）十二月至1949年，主要为民国中央政府及所属部院等机关与西藏噶厦地方政府、达赖喇嘛、班禅额尔德尼以及四川、西康、青海、甘肃等藏区省份来往文少书，记载和反映了晚清和民国时期中央政府治理西藏的方针政策和具体措施，以及中央政府关于西藏的重大事件、重要问题的处理情况。同时，也记载和反映了这一时期与西藏毗邻的四川、青海、甘肃、云南等省藏区的政治、经济、宗教、文化、教育和社会发展历史。西藏地区所藏近代西藏和藏事档案，主要集中在西藏自治区档案馆及拉萨市、日喀则、林芝、山南、阿里、那曲、昌都地区和各县档案馆，各大寺庙也保存有不少近代历史档案，其中尤以西藏自治区档案馆所藏数量最多也最为重要。该馆所藏以藏文为主的西藏和平解放前的旧政权档案，共有300多万卷（册），以藏文为主，还有八思巴文、汉文、满文、蒙文、阿拉伯文、印地文、尼泊尔文、英文、俄文等10余种文字。其内容主要有：西藏行政区划，国民政府对西藏行使主权，宗教事务，西藏重大历史事件及抵抗侵略，西藏地区的农奴制度、司法制度、社会状况、农牧和手工业等经济状况、矿产资源，以及西藏与内地民族间往来等。四川藏区档案史料主要保存在四川省档案馆、甘孜藏族自治州档案馆、阿坝藏族羌族自治州档案馆以及康定、德格、巴塘、马尔康、木里、理塘、乡城、炉霍、稻城等县档案馆中，以民国时期档案为主。其中四川省档案馆所藏涉及藏事的西康档案有1万余卷，形成时间从明洪武二十一年（1388年）起，至民国三十八年（1949年）止。云南藏区近代档案主要保存在迪庆州各县档案馆、图书文化馆、公安局及州档案馆以及噶丹松赞林寺、东竹林寺等寺院中。该批档案涉及年代从清朝乾隆三年（1738年）十月起至1949年止，约11300余件，且绝大多数档案为民国时期，记录了清代和民国时期中央政府及云南地方政府对藏族的政策，从政治、军事、经济、文化等不同方面反映了中央政府对云南藏区的有效管理与统治，以及藏族同胞在这一历史时期的生活情形及与各民族关系等方面的历史状况。甘肃省所藏近代藏事档案，甘肃省各地、市、县等各级档案馆、图书馆、文化馆及拉卜楞寺等众多藏传佛教寺院均有收藏，其中尤以甘肃省档案馆、图书馆，甘南藏族自治州档案馆、夏河县档案馆、天祝藏族自治县档案馆、临夏回族自治州档案馆所藏最多，总数在8000件左右，其主要内容包括清末和民国时期国家政务、国民党党务、民政、行政、户政、疆域、地政、礼俗、民族、部落、土司、宗教、寺院、警政、保安、禁烟、社会、建设、营建、人事、监察、司法、军事、外交、经济、文化、教育、卫生、体育及人物诸方面，反映和记载了甘肃藏族人民生活地区政治、军事、经济、司法治安、民政、宗教、文化教育卫生等各方面社会发展的历史概貌。青海省所存清代和民国时期西藏及藏事档案，主要保存在青海省档案馆，形成于雍正二年（1724年）至民国三十八年（1949年），以民国时期档案为主。这些档案史料，反映和记载了清代和民国时期青海省藏族地区政治、经济、军事、司法、文化、宗教、民族关系及青海与西藏关系、青海与四川阿坝地区关系、青海与甘肃拉卜楞地区关系等诸方面的基本情况；也记录了清代和民国时期青海地方政府对藏族的政策，从各个不同侧面反映了清朝政府和民国政府对青海藏区二百余年的统治以及藏族同胞在这一历史时期的生活、生活、发展演变及民族关系各方面的历史状况。为更好的开发利用中国境内各保藏机构所存西藏和藏事档案资料，为学术研究服务，各档案馆在中国藏学研究中心的支持下，积极编纂出版馆藏相关档案文献目录和专题档案汇编，为研究西藏和藏区历史，提供了大量第一手重要史料。主要有《西藏和藏事档案史料目录丛书》（8册），收录档案条目95000余条，计约820万字；《元以来西藏地方与中央政府关系档案史料汇编》（7册）《清末十三世达赖喇嘛档案史料选编》《九世班禅圆寂致祭和十世班禅坐床档案选编》《十三世达赖圆寂致祭和十四世达赖转世坐床档案汇编》《九世班禅内地活动及返藏受阻档案选编》《西藏亚东关档案选编》《民国时期西藏及藏区经济开发建设档案选编》《中国第二历史档案馆所存西藏和藏事档案汇编》等专题档案汇编。这一系列档案史料的编辑出版，对推动国内外藏学研究工作向纵深发展发挥了重要作用。

Structural similarities in these three societies have produced in each of them two very different situations of race and ethnic relations. First, in the 'frontier' situation the European immigrants displaced the indigenes both geographically and culturally, and created similar systems of internal colonialism to deal with the dispossessed remnants of aborigines and Amerindians. Second, large numbers of largely European immigrants settled mostly in cities, and gradually became assimilated into the Anglo mainstream of their host societies. While the label of 'Anglo-conformity' describes the process of assimilation better than that of 'melting pot', there is no question that the European immigrant groups became a relatively homogenous amalgam. It is predicted that the 'ethnic revival' of the 1970s will not significantly reverse this process of assimilation, and that only Canada, with its large, stable territorialized French minority, faces a serious possibility of ethnic separatism.

Cydia pomonella is a serious invasive insect pest in China, and has caused severe damage to the production of apple and pear in its invaded areas. This species is distributing in the northwest and northeast of China, but no occurrence of it has been recorded in the large areas (about 3000-5000 km away) between the invaded northwestern and northeastern regions despite continuous monitoring. As yet the genetic diversity and invasion origin of the C. pomonella populations in Northwestern and Northeastern China is obscure. In this study, we investigate the genetic diversity of 14 populations of C. pomonella sampled throughout the main distribution regions in Northwestern (Xinjiang and Gansu Provinces) and Northeastern (Heilongjiang Province) China and compared them with nine populations from Europe and other continents using the mitochondrial COI, COII and Cytb genes. Both the populations from Northeastern and Northwestern China shared some haplotypes with populations from other countries. Haplotypes of the three mitochondrial genes had a different distribution in Northeastern and Northwestern China. The northeastern populations had more private haplotypes than the northwestern populations. A large number of the individuals from northwestern populations shared a few haplotypes of each of the three genes. The haplotype numbers and haplotype diversities of the northeastern populations were similar to those of field populations in other countries, but were higher than those of the northwestern populations. Populations from the Northwestern China showed similar haplotype number and haplotype diversity. We conclude that the population genetic background of C. pomonella populations in Northeastern and Northwestern China varies due to different invasion sources and that this should be considered before the application of new pest control tactics.

Hong Kong has generally been regarded as a socially homogenous city predominately populated by Chinese. Ethnic minorities are usually absent in public discourse and ethnic relations are generally considered harmonious in the city. However, it is revealed by social researchers that despite the lack of an institutionalized form of racism in Hong Kong, ethnic tensions do exist in the everyday life among individuals. This study is concerned about the everyday level of ethnic relations in Hong Kong. The objective of this study is to reveal how ethnic relations are dealt with by both ethnic minorities and the local Chinese people residing in the city. In particular, the way in which ethnic boundary is constantly reproduced and negotiated by the two parties in their everyday life is examined. Adopting a constructivist approach, ethnic boundary is regarded as something constructed and therefore subject to the flexible negotiation of individuals in their everyday life in this study.\n\n\n\nThe South Asian communities are selected as the target in this study because they are the biggest groups of ethnic minorities and they have a long history of settlement in Hong Kong. Fourteen in-depth interviews were conducted with a total of eighteen individuals with different ethnicities, including Indian, Pakistani, Nepalese, Sri Lankan and also the local Chinese, all having settled in Hong Kong. Semi-structured questions were asked in the interviews to explore their life experience regarding ethnic relations in Hong Kong; their social, cultural and religious practices; and their perceptions on their identity. It is found that both the local Chinese and ethnic minorities have engaged in the reproduction and negotiation of ethnic boundary. Ethnic boundary is reproduced by the local Chinese through racist bias, and by the ethnic minorities through retaining their cultural and religious traditions and establishing social connection with their fellows in the ethnic community. However, it can also be negotiated through the cultural assimilation of ethnic minorities and also cross-ethnic interaction. Moreover, identification with a superordinate social category above ethnicity also helps eliminate ethnic boundary. \n\nBased upon an analysis of my intensive interviews, it is suggested that several factors would affect whether individuals from ethnic minority groups tend to reproduce or negotiate ethnic boundary, namely Chinese proficiency, family upbringing, education and the nature of the ethnic culture. While exploring the way in which ethnic boundary is negotiated, it is also revealed that possibilities are opened up to alter the meaning of the social category of “Hong Konger” from a term closely associated with the Chinese ethnicity to one which does not exclude ethnic minorities. This study has also advanced the literature on “doing difference” by recognizing the potential of individual agents in creating alternative understanding of ethnic differences.

Pollen evidence for a wet Younger Dryas in northern NE China

Part 1 Muslim nationalism in China - a fourth tide: Qing Zhen - expressions of Hui identity state power and the evolution of an ethnonym the problem - who are the Hui? sociocultural diversity among the Hui three tides of Islam in China the fourth tide - ethnic nationalism in an age of nation-states. Part 2 Ethnographic research and the Chinese state: theoretical perspectives on Hui identity the rise of the nation-state and the invention of ethnicity Han nationalism and the creation of in China derivative discourses and Chinese traditional nationalism the ethnogenesis of the Hui - from Muslim to minority nationality the research - in search of the Hui the unity and diversity of Hui identity - four communities in flux. Part 3 Ethnoreligious resurgence in a northwestern Sufi community: a fundamentalist revivial in Na homestead? the rerooting of identity in Na homestead ethnoreligious roots the socioeconomic context local government policies and Na national identity truth within purity - expressions of Na identity. Part 4 Ethnic identity in Oxen Street - the urban experience: making Hui in the city - the urban problem Oxen street, an urban Hui enclave recurring texts in Oxen Street the socioeconomic context of Oxen Street Hui identity government policy and urban strategies the culture of purity - Hui identity in the city. Part 5 The other great wall - ethnic endogamy and exclusivity in a Hui autonomous village: ethnohistorical origins of a Hui autonomous village ethnic coherence and Changying identity Changying traditions of rural entrepreneurship ethnoreligious marriage traditions in Changying preserving purity through ethnic endogamy - ethnoreligious strategies and government policy in Changying. Part 6 Ethnic invention and state intervention in a southeastern lineage: no pigs for these ancestors - the memory of Muslim ancestry in Chendai the cultural basis for Chendai Hui identity socioeconomic factors in Chendai Hui identity ethnic identity and national policy - the Taiwanese Muslims public policy and ethnic revitalization in Chendai becoming ethnic in China purity within truth - Hui identity among southeastern lineages. Part 7 Conclusion - national identity in the Chinese nation-state: the people of the People's Republic - finally in the vanguard? the social life of labels objectified ethnonyms in the northwest the hardening of ethnonyms in the southwest sub-ethnic identities and the question of Han ethnicity the rise of united nationalities ethnic pluralism in Chinese society the dialectics of nationality policy and Hui identity ethnicity and nationalism in the People's Republic. Appendices: Hui Islamic orders in China a select glossary of Hui Islamic terms.

Divided into four volumes,Race and Ethnicity in Americaprovides a complete overview of the history of racial and ethnic relations in America, from pre-contact to the present. The five hundred years since Europeans made contact with the indigenous peoples of America have been dominated by racial and ethnic tensions. During the colonial period, from 1500 to 1776, slavery and servitude of whites, blacks, and Indians formed the foundation for race and ethnic relations. After the American Revolution, slavery, labor inequalities, and immigration led to racial and ethnic tensions; after the Civil War, labor inequalities, immigration, and the fight for civil rights dominated America's racial and ethnic experience. From the 1960s to the present, the unfulfilled promise of civil rights for all ethnic and racial groups in America has been the most important sociopolitical issue in America. Race and Ethnicity in Americatells this story of the fight for equality in America. The first volume spans pre-contact to the American Revolution; the second, the American Revolution to the Civil War; the third, Reconstruction to the Civil Rights Movement; and the fourth, the Civil Rights Movement to the present. All volumes explore the culture, society, labor, war and politics, and cultural expressions of racial and ethnic groups.

Divided into four volumes,Race and Ethnicity in Americaprovides a complete overview of the history of racial and ethnic relations in America, from pre-contact to the present. The five hundred years since Europeans made contact with the indigenous peoples of America have been dominated by racial and ethnic tensions. During the colonial period, from 1500 to 1776, slavery and servitude of whites, blacks, and Indians formed the foundation for race and ethnic relations. After the American Revolution, slavery, labor inequalities, and immigration led to racial and ethnic tensions; after the Civil War, labor inequalities, immigration, and the fight for civil rights dominated America's racial and ethnic experience. From the 1960s to the present, the unfulfilled promise of civil rights for all ethnic and racial groups in America has been the most important sociopolitical issue in America. Race and Ethnicity in Americatells this story of the fight for equality in America. The first volume spans pre-contact to the American Revolution; the second, the American Revolution to the Civil War; the third, Reconstruction to the Civil Rights Movement; and the fourth, the Civil Rights Movement to the present. All volumes explore the culture, society, labor, war and politics, and cultural expressions of racial and ethnic groups.

Divided into four volumes,Race and Ethnicity in Americaprovides a complete overview of the history of racial and ethnic relations in America, from pre-contact to the present. The five hundred years since Europeans made contact with the indigenous peoples of America have been dominated by racial and ethnic tensions. During the colonial period, from 1500 to 1776, slavery and servitude of whites, blacks, and Indians formed the foundation for race and ethnic relations. After the American Revolution, slavery, labor inequalities, and immigration led to racial and ethnic tensions; after the Civil War, labor inequalities, immigration, and the fight for civil rights dominated America's racial and ethnic experience. From the 1960s to the present, the unfulfilled promise of civil rights for all ethnic and racial groups in America has been the most important sociopolitical issue in America. Race and Ethnicity in Americatells this story of the fight for equality in America. The first volume spans pre-contact to the American Revolution; the second, the American Revolution to the Civil War; the third, Reconstruction to the Civil Rights Movement; and the fourth, the Civil Rights Movement to the present. All volumes explore the culture, society, labor, war and politics, and cultural expressions of racial and ethnic groups.

Divided into four volumes,Race and Ethnicity in Americaprovides a complete overview of the history of racial and ethnic relations in America, from pre-contact to the present. The five hundred years since Europeans made contact with the indigenous peoples of America have been dominated by racial and ethnic tensions. During the colonial period, from 1500 to 1776, slavery and servitude of whites, blacks, and Indians formed the foundation for race and ethnic relations. After the American Revolution, slavery, labor inequalities, and immigration led to racial and ethnic tensions; after the Civil War, labor inequalities, immigration, and the fight for civil rights dominated America's racial and ethnic experience. From the 1960s to the present, the unfulfilled promise of civil rights for all ethnic and racial groups in America has been the most important sociopolitical issue in America. Race and Ethnicity in Americatells this story of the fight for equality in America. The first volume spans pre-contact to the American Revolution; the second, the American Revolution to the Civil War; the third, Reconstruction to the Civil Rights Movement; and the fourth, the Civil Rights Movement to the present. All volumes explore the culture, society, labor, war and politics, and cultural expressions of racial and ethnic groups.

Most modern nation states have been formed through their central governments' delimitation of national boundaries in frontier areas, which were often inhabited by ethnic minority groups. To relax possible ethnic tensions, the central governments have presented ethnic policies. Because the minority policy in a nation is one of the most important factors affecting the process of national integration, it is crucial to explore the development of the policy in detail.The ethnic minority people in China account for only 6.7% of the country's whole population However, since the area of their resident districts accounts for more than fifty percent of the nation, and are located at strategically important points, national integration of ethnic minorities has been an essential problem for the Chinese government. Whereas it is said that the government accomplished political equality, it admits the existence of ‘inequality as a matter of fact’: inter-ethnic differentials in both economic and cultural terms. To ameliorate this problem, the government has attempted to implement policies of economic development and ethnic education in the minority districts. To date, their specific circumstances have been rather unclear, however. In particular, with regard to Yunnan Province, Japanese scholars, including geographers, have thus far paid attention to cultural aspects almost exclusively. The purpose of this paper, keeping Yunnan's historical and geographical factors in mind, is to elucidate the development of ethnic minority policy by the Chinese goverment in the province.In the second section, the current situation of the minority ethnic groups is discussed briefly. The twenty-four groups with more than ten million people account for 31.7% of the province's whole population, and these compose eight autonomous prefectures and twenty-nine autonomous counties. Furthermore, the twenty-four groups can be divided into sub-groups. These imply the variety and complexty of the province's ethnic composition. Generally, the percentage of minority population is higher in the frontier districts than in the central districts of Yunnan, and particular minorities tend to concentrate partly according to altitude.The third section is devoted to an explanation of ethnic policy during the period between 1949 and 1958, when an essential aim of the Chinese government's policy was to integrate minority groups into the new system of the communist nation. Even at the time immediately after the foundation of the nation, the central Yunnan districts were under long-standing control of the Han Chinese in terms of socio-economic activities, suggesting a relatively easy integration of them by the Chinese Communist Party. However, the influence of the party in the frontier districts was negligible, because the districts formed a buffer zone, where the powers of Britain, France, the Kuomintang Government and native nationalist headmen were complicated. The Yunnan government sent there a minority maneuvering party in order to establish a better relationship with the minorities, support their lives and investigate their circumstances. In particular, integration policy in terms of economy and distribution was taken seriously at the beginning of this period. With regard to political matters, autonomous districts were established through the assumption of minority leaders to important posts in the Chinese Communist Party, and, as a result, a great part of the frontier districts came under the rule of the party. Minority groups were divided into four different types from the historical stage standpoint of social development. The Yunnan Government presented four land reform methods, correspondent to this minority grouping. Although the land reform based on this method and establishment of collective farms began in 1955, they have made less progress in the frontier districts than in the central parts of the province.

The significant influence of the sea surface temperature anomalies over North Atlantic and the Maritime Continent on maize yield in Northeast China

This paper presents a model-based object recognition method which combines a bottom-up evidence accumulation process and a top-down hypothesis verification process. The hypothesize-and-test paradigm is fundamental in model-based vision. However, research issues remain on how the bottom-up process gathers pieces of evidence and when the top-down process should take the lead. To accumulate pieces of evidence, we use a configuration space whose points represent a configuration of an object (ie. position and orientation of an object in an image). If a feature is found which matches a part of an object model, the configuration space is updated to reflect the possible configurations of the object. A region in the configuration space where multiple pieces of evidence from such feature-part matches overlap suggests a high probability that the object exists in an image with a configuration in that region. The cost of the bottom-up process to further accumulate evidence for localization, and that of the top-down process to recognize the object by verification, are compared by considering the size of the search region and the probability of success of verification. If the cost of the top-down process becomes lower, hypotheses are generated and their verification processes are started. The first version of the recognition program has been written and applied to the recognition of a jet airplane in synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images. In creating a model of an object, we have used a SAR simulator as a sensor model, so that we can predict those object features which are reliably detectable by the sensors. The program is being tested with simulated SAR images, and shows promising performance.

Within this chapter, we illustrate the prima facie contradictory positions in which hate crime victims often find themselves in by being on the one hand all too visible to perpetrators on the basis of their ‘difference’, and yet largely invisible to professionals, mainstream society and policy formation because of the marginal positions which they are seen to occupy. We begin by reflecting upon how the term ‘hate crime’ has been—or perhaps more pertinently how it should be—defined. This discussion is designed to steer readers through some of the main challenges and ambiguities relating to defining ‘hate crime’ and by doing so offers conceptual clarity for the purposes of the chapters which follow.

Background: Childhood obesity has become one of the most important epidemic problems in the world, both in developed and underdeveloped areas. Purpose: In this study, we aimed to examine the relationship between obesity and the birth place of migrant children in Shanghai, China. Methods: A crosssectional survey was conducted in April 2018, and a multistage, random cluster sampling method was applied. The final sample included 3707 children between 7 to 12 years old (1917 boys and 1790 girls). We conducted anthropometric measurements (height, weight) and questionnaire investigation. Results: Children who were born in north China were more likely to be obese (OR = 1.23, 95% CI = 1.01-1.87), compared with those who were born in HMT (Hong Kong; Macao and Taiwan). The same goes for East China (OR = 1.41, 95% CI = 1.11-2.23), Northwest China (OR = 1.43, 95% CI = 1.21-3.14) and Southwest China (OR = 1.55, 95% CI = 1.34-3.29) when comparing children who were born in these divisions with those who were born in HMT (Hong Kong; Macao and Taiwan; children born in Northeast China were most likely to be overweight (OR = 1.94, 95% CI = 1.63-2.82). Conclusion: At the provincial level, we found that Heilongjiang, Chongqing, Liaoning have the highest prevalence of obesity. At the regional level, children born in Northeastern China are the most likely to be obese than those born in HMT (Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan), among children born in North China, East China, Northwest China and Southwest China.