Ethical issues and law-making power: how European case law has rewritten Italian law on medically assisted reproduction.

The legal nature of video games in terms of copyright is hard to determine. Video games are highly interactive multimedia that are made up of individual elements that are the ‘product’ of creative effort and expertise. Video games are also complex multimedia works that combine video, music, art and characters. There is a debate on which work is qualified to be copyright protected: is it the video game as a whole or the individual elements of it? To question further, under which category of protected works should they be classified? This article will shed light on the above considerations by employing a combination of doctrinal and comparative analyses. European and national legislation and case law will be analysed, with particular emphasis on four national jurisdictions: Germany, France, Greece and the UK. The article discusses the divergent opinions among academics, national and European case law, and will suggest that copyright registration of video games would provide more clarity.

2023/26 The obligation to record working time in the light of European and national (German) case law - part 1 (GE) This article deals with the aftermath of the ECJ’s CCOO judgment (14 May 2019, C-55/18), which has been a major issue in various EU jurisdictions. The article consists of two parts. This first part introduces the case, its primary consequences in Germany and deals with a comparison of legal requirements throughout Europe. The second part will discuss some particular consequences in Germany.

2023/27 The obligation to record working time in the light of European and national (German) case law – Part 2 (GE) This article deals with the aftermath of the ECJ’s CCOO judgment (14 May 2019, C-55/18), which has been a major issue in various EU jurisdictions. The article consists of two parts. This second part discusses some particular consequences in Germany.

By way of a comparison between European and United States case law regarding same-sex marriages, this chapter aims at stressing the important role of judicial activity in implementing the full meaning of equality in exercising the fundamental right to marry. From an analysis of different judgments concerning the same-sex marriage, it is possible to observe a gradual global prevailing of the “paradigm of heterosexual marriage”, as a result of the non-discrimination principle on the grounds of sexual orientation, which is consolidated by the occidental juridical culture. The study of this case law also points out the relationship between social consent, judicial activity and legislative power. The European supranational courts as well as the US Supreme Court seem to check in a more stringent manner the discretion of the domestic/State legislators, in accordance with the growing social consent in favor of same-sex marriages. The “new approach” of the European supranational courts and the US Supreme Court has the merit to trigger a virtuous dialog among lower courts, State legislators and civil society in order to gradually give fullness to the meaning of the non-discrimination principle on the grounds of sexual orientation. Hence, it is possible to say that the current question is not if the same-sex marriage is constitutional but who decides about it. Judicial action, in the absence of legislative answers, risks guaranteeing only a fragmentary (and often contradictory) protection of fundamental rights. It should be desirable that the legislator will choose suggestions coming from the “living law” and that the “dichotomy” between the two powers will be reduced to unity, according to the rules of a democratic system, based on the separation of and loyal cooperation between the same powers.

Lost in Translation? Bill 21, Human Rights and The Margin of Appreciation

The adoption of Bill 21, which bans religious symbols for civil servants in Quebec, has stirred considerable debate politically and constitutionally in the province and in the rest of Canada. Neglected, however, has been a more in-depth analysis of how international human rights law often serves as an implicit frame of reference for many of the debates surrounding Bill 21. This essay focuses, in particular, on the invocation of the case law of the European Court of Human Rights, which seems to have validated bans of religious symbols in various contexts. It gives an overview of that jurisprudence and specifies the parameters within which it operates, emphasizing the complexity of translating a supranational case law into a domestic debate. It argues that whilst Quebec is less alone in banning religious symbols than is sometimes argued, the European case law needs to be handled carefully. In particular, the essay emphasizes the importance of the so-called “margin of appreciation” as heavily impacting the outcome in those cases. Although the margin suggests that there is national leeway in adopting bans based on certain national traditions and specificities, it hardly opens the door to all bans. Rather, the margin emphasizes the significance of divergences between states parties on an issue and respect for procedural safeguards. The essay concludes with some thoughts on how importing human rights arguments out of context can be perilous, but also about how the margin itself may be problematic.

Sexual and gender-related violence are widely regarded as serious violations of human rights. Notwithstanding, those who apply for asylum and invoke violence as a basis of their claim face difficulties in obtaining international protection. This may be due to the lack of trust in the applicant’s credibility, the nature of the evidence, lack of official information on incidents of gender violence, or the inclination of asylum countries not to become involved in ‘private matters’. This article analyses the trends in adjudication of asylum claims related to gender-based violence. In particular, it examines the recent European and national case law on asylum claims related to female genital mutilation, domestic violence and trafficking. It explores possible solutions to obstacles for securing international protection in such claims through various remedies. The authors note that the EU legislative developments do not eliminate these obstacles. At the same time, attempts in various national jurisdictions to dismiss gender-based claims as a ‘private matter’ are being challenged; there is now recognition that states have a positive obligation to ensure the protection of an individual’s basic rights, in particular through the application of ECtHR case law. These developments suggest positive trends towards protecting the applicants with gender-related claims.

Internet as a means of communication, whatever the type of information it might be used for, falls within the exercise of the right to freedom of expression, as guaranteed by Article 10 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. As established in the European Court's case law, freedom of expression constitutes one of the essentials of a democratic society, therefore limitations on that freedom foreseen in Article 10 § 2 of the Convention are to be interpreted strictly. In order to ensure effective protection of one's freedom of expression on the Internet, States bear a positive obligation to create an appropriate regulatory framework, balancing the right to freedom of expression on one and the limitations prescribed in Article 10 § 2, on the other hand. Special attention in doing so is to be paid to the risk of harm posed by content and communications on the Internet to the exercise and enjoyment of other human rights and freedoms guaranteed by the European Convention, particularly the right to respect for private life. While it is the fact that the electronic network, serving billions of users worldwide, will never be subject to the same regulations and control, because of the national authorities' margin of appreciation, the European Court established commonly applicable general principles regarding the Internet as a media of exercising right to freedom of expression.

The article reveals the content of the principle of good governance based on the analysis of the Constitution and laws of Ukraine, international treaties, decisions of the Constitutional Court of Ukraine, as well as decisions of the European Court of Human Rights and the Supreme Court.The author analyzes the decisions of the European Court of Human Rights, which formulates the principle of good governance in its modern sense, and on the basis of this analysis determines its content and features. It has been established that the rulings of the European Court of Human Rights have established a consistent practice of understanding the principle of good governance, which includes five main components, a detailed analysis of each of which is based on specific examples. It was found that the principle of good governance is characterized by the dynamics of its development, which is manifested in the constant expansion of the content of this principle. It is argued that the permanent development of the principle of good governance has led to the formation of a new component of this principle - proportionality.The national case law in cases arising from public law disputes is described and the approach of courts to the application of the principle of good governance is clarified. It is substantiated that there is a well-established case law in social disputes, according to which one of the manifestations of the principle of good governance is that in the absence of an effective mechanism for guaranteeing social benefits provided by law, in full or no statutory expenditures for such benefits. should make it impossible to protect the property rights of a person guaranteed by Article 41 of the Constitution of Ukraine. Other aspects of the application of the principle of good governance in judicial practice have been clarified and analyzed. Based on the analysis, a conclusion is drawn about the importance of the principle of good governance in Euro-pean and national case law.

У статті розглядається безсторонність (неупередженість) суду як невід'ємний елемент та міра реалізації завдань справедливого суду. Зауважується, що одним із чинників, що позитивно впливає на формування громадської думки щодо судової влади та суддів безумовно, є безсторонність (неупередженість) суддів. Адже безсторонній розгляд і вирішення судових справ - один із головних обов'язків кожного судді, а також складова частина присяги судді, порушенням якої визнається, зокрема, вчинення суддею дій, що можуть викликати сумнів у його неупередженості та підірвати довіру до судової влади в цілому з боку громадськості. Статтю присвячено дослідженню сутності безсторонності суддів та визначенню її основних критеріїв з огляду на міжнародні норми, норми національного законодавства, а також практику Європейського Суду з прав людини. Зазначається, що в Європейському Суді з прав людини напрацьована багаторічна практика щодо з'ясування того, чи був національний суд, розглядаючи конкретну справу, безсторонннім у розумінні п. 1 ст. 6 Конвенції про захист прав людини та основоположних свобод. Так, п. 1 ст. 6 Конвенції вимагає, щоб «суд», що підпадає під його дію, був неупередженим. Як правило, неупередженість означає відсутність упереджень або упередженості, при цьому її наявність або відсутність можуть бути перевірені різними способами. Отже, сенс і прояви безсторонності прийнято виводити з оцінок правового поняття «упередженість», яке має окремі усталені практикою Європейського Суду критерії, пов'язані з наданням переваг одній зі сторін спору. Саме на констатації фактів упередженості і на цій основі визнання порушень правил Конвенції про справедливий суд побудована прецедентна практика Європейського Суду. Крім того, відповідно до усталеної практики Європейського Суду з прав людини наявність безсторонності відповідно до п. 1 ст. 6 Конвенції про захист прав людини та основоположних свобод повинна визначатися за об'єктивним та суб'єктивним критеріями. Європейський Суд у своїх рішеннях проводить відмінність між об'єктивним підходом, тобто визначенням, чи були судді надані достатні гарантії, щоб виключити будь обґрунтовані сумніви в цьому відношенні, та суб'єктивним підходом, тобто прагненням переконатися в суб'єктивному обвинуваченні або інтересі певного судді у конкретній справі. У статті також проаналізовані приклади випадків, у яких може постати питання щодо недостатньої безсторонності суду: перший, функціонального характеру, стосується, наприклад, виконання однією особою різних функцій в межах судового провадження, або ієрархічні чи інші зв'язки між цією та іншою особою в межах того ж провадження; другий має особистий характер і є наслідком поведінки судді у даній справі. На підставі проведеного аналізу зроблено висновок, що безсторонність є ключовою характеристикою судді, головною ознакою судової влади та основою судового процесу і вважається очевидним фактом. Безсторонність суду має означати його діяльність виключно на основі чинного законодавства, враховуючи принцип верховенства права, на підставі професійних знань і власної правосвідомості, виключаючи будь-який сторонній вплив і підконтрольність. Власне безсторонність як ознака справедливого судового розгляду означає рівне ставлення суду до учасників, вирішення спору як нейтральним і безстороннім фахівцем без надання комусь переваг. Саме такий стан речей зможе реально забезпечити право кожної особи на справедливий судовий процес та слугувати стандартом організації судочинства у правовій демократичній державі.

With No Deliberate Speed: The Segregation of Roma Children in Europe

In the modern era of speedier Information and Communication Technology, the power of social media as an information dissemination tool and influencer is felt in the hands of each and every individual both inside as well as outside the organization. Earlier, organizations and the administration did not have easy and free access to positive or negative information about an employee or a would-be employee, but nowadays with the advent of all-pervasive social media, hardly any aspect can remain hidden about any individual, whether one likes it or not. This is where a new problem has arisen quite often to the detriment of an employee or a would-be employee of an organization. Many a time, information that has become infructuous, irrelevant, or not supposed to impact the future of an individual anymore, still keeps doing the rounds of social media creating a false narrative about the individual leading to unjustified harm to the individual within or outside an organization. In such situations, one may find oneself helpless. The speed and unlimited reach of social media have further stoked the fire of this new malady, with the potential to cause harm to anybody, where of late, the law had to intervene and come to the rescue of the affected party in the name of justice. This article makes a humble attempt to analyze the law relating to the “Right To Be Forgotten” (RTBF), briefly covering the traditional forms of unequal treatment, emergence of a new and different form of unequal treatment that popped up its head not long ago in the 21st century largely due to the wide-spread and increasing use of modern information and communication technologies (ICTs), powerful influencer social media and the internet by citizens and organizations in every nation and across the continents, ultimately leading to the birth of the “Right To Erasure” (RTE), more often now called as the “Right To Be Forgotten,” and further examine in this regard select European Union and Indian judicial decisions. Since the area under examination is comparatively of recent origin in terms of national and international case law and is fast evolving its contours, it is by no means intended to be a comparative study between the European Union and India. The main focus here, however, is to study the emergence of a new and different form of unequal treatment of individuals in the 21st century, due the all-pervasive social media and the internet, consequent advent of “Right To Be Forgotten” (RTBF) or “Right To Erasure” (RTE), main relevant statutes, examine the broad spectrum of coverage of the “Right To Be Forgotten” (RTBF) in the European case law and the Indian case law, and touching upon select judicial decisions in the European Union and the Indian judicial systems, through the study of primary and secondary online and offline sources.

The Establishment of Parenthood: A Story of Successful Convergence?

Article 8 ECHR Compliant and Foreseeable Surveillance: The ECTHR's Expanded Legality Requirement Copied by the CJEU. A Discussion of European Surveillance Case Law

This article explores the notion of European consensus on selected socially sensitive issues – same-sex relationships, abortion, euthanasia, and assisted suicide. It investigates how these topics are addressed in Western and Central-Eastern Europe, with particular attention to the interplay between EU law and national legal and political frameworks. The research focuses on how customary change is negotiated through legal norms, political debate, and social values. It asks how EU integration and European case law influence national policymaking, and how differing historical and political contexts shape policy divergence. The study is based on a qualitative and comparative methodology, combining legal analysis of European case law, comparative review of national legislation and case law, and discourse analysis of EU institutional debates. Findings suggest that Western European countries generally implement more progressive reforms, while Central-Eastern European states proceed more cautiously, constrained by conservative traditions. The article concludes that while EU legal standards exert integrative pressure, local contexts continue to define the limits of normative convergence. A balance between liberal and conservative approaches is necessary to maintain both legal coherence and cultural pluralism within the EU.