Estimating Greenhouse Gas Emissions Level of A Natural Gas Pipeline – Case Study from A to B Point in West Java-Indonesia

Summary The recent rapid expansion of natural-gas developments and usage worldwide are bringing into focus the need to improve understanding and characterization of greenhouse-gas (GHG) emission sources, including methane (CH4), associated with petroleum and natural-gas systems. New production technologies and practices, including those involving hydraulic fracturing, necessitate a thorough review of existing quantification methods for fugitive CH4 emissions from venting, flaring, and equipment leaks associated with petroleum and natural-gas systems and operations. In the past few years, widely divergent estimates have emerged regarding CH4 emissions from the US natural-gas-industry sector. Some discrepancies noted by industry surveys have led to a thorough review of newly available information and are leading to the improvement of estimation methods and emission factors associated with activities that comprise natural-gas systems. This has manifested itself in the engineering estimations that are used for compiling the national GHG Emissions Inventory and in the methods used by companies for reporting under the mandatory national GHG Reporting Program. Both the inventory and the reporting program are programs of the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This paper presents results of a comparative analysis of GHG-emissions data, including CH4, for key industry segments such as on-shore natural-gas production and natural-gas processing and their contribution to the Petroleum and Natural Gas Systems sector. The data analyzed will contrast the “top-down” assessments used in developing the GHG Emissions Inventory with the “bottom-up” estimation of actual emissions as reported under Subpart W of the GHG Reporting Program. The analysis will provide a comparison of the estimation methods and evaluation of the contribution of key sources with overall CH4 emissions. The ultimate goal of this effort is to incorporate the new information that is becoming available into consistent methods that can be used both for national GHG inventory development and for corporate reporting. Harmonization of these methods is expected to contribute to informing the public debate on natural-gas use and its role in mitigating overall GHG emissions.

Methane emissions along biomethane and biogas supply chains are underestimated

When being transported by pipeline, natural gas is often emitted to the atmosphere, either for depressurization (venting emissions) or leak through the pipeline (fugitive emission). The emission level must be well estimated to provide relevant informations and recommendation to formulate strategies for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. Organizations such as INGAA (The Interstate Natural Gas Association of America) and IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) provide GHG estimation guidelines which are adopted by many companies and countries. This study estimates the emission level of a natural gas pipeline in West Java using emission factors referring to INGAA and IPCC guidelines with flow rate variation. The result shows that the flow rate variation affects the total emission based on Tier 2 and Tier 3 INGAA as well as Tier 1 IPCC. It is also shown that fugitive emissions dominate the total emission of gas pipeline. However, the use of different methodologies and guidelines gives different emission level for the same pipeline. Different estimation results of emission level have been reviewed and national emission factors database for gas transmission is highly suggested to be developed.

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) produce sludge as a byproduct when they treat wastewater. In the United States, over 8 million dry tons of sludge are produced annually just from publicly owned WWTPs. Sludge is commonly treated in anaerobic digesters, which generate biogas; the biogas is then largely flared to reduce emissions of methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Because sludge is quite homogeneous and has a high energy content, it is a good potential feedstock for other conversion processes that make biofuels, bioproducts, and power. For example, biogas from anaerobic digesters can be used to generate renewable natural gas (RNG), which can be further processed to produce compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG). Sludge can be directly converted into hydrocarbon liquid fuels via thermochemical processes such as hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL). Currently, the environmental impacts of converting sludge into energy are largely unknown, and only a few studies have focused on the environmental impacts of RNG produced from existing anaerobic digesters. As biofuels from sludge generate high interest, however, existing anaerobic digesters could be upgraded to technology with more economic potential and more environmental benefits. The environmental impacts of using a different anaerobic digestion (AD) technology to convert sludge into energy have yet to be analyzed. In addition, no studies are available about the direct conversion of sludge into liquid fuels. In order to estimate the energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions impacts of these alternative pathways (sludge-to-RNG and sludge-to-liquid), this study performed a lifecycle analysis (LCA) using the Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation (GREET®) model. The energy uses and GHG emissions associated with the RNG and hydrocarbon liquid are analyzed relative to the current typical sludge management case, which consists of a single-stage mesophilic digester with biogas flaring. Along with the alternative HTL process, four types of AD technologies with fuel production—single-stage mesophilic, mesophilic 2-stage, single-stage mesophilic with thermohydrolysis treatment, and mesophilicmesophilic acid/gas phase—are studied. Results show that the sludge-to-CNG pathway via AD and the sludge-to-liquid pathway via HTL reduce GHG emissions consumptions significantly. When we compare the GHG emissions of the alternative fuel production pathways to that of the counterfactual case in terms of the amount of sludge treated, reductions in GHG emissions are 39%–80% and 87% for alternative AD and HTL, respectively. Compared to petroleum gasoline and diesel GHG emission results in terms of MJ, the renewable CNG production pathway via AD and the renewable diesel production pathway via HTL reduce GHG emissions by 193% and 46%, respectively. These large reductions are mainly due to GHG credits from avoiding GHGs under the counterfactual scenario, and/or fertilizer displacement credits. Similarly, reductions in fossil fuel use for sludge-based fuels are huge. However, well-defined counterfactual scenarios are needed because the results of the study depend on the counterfactual scenario, which might vary over time.

Mortality, Greenhouse Gas Emissions, and Consumer Cost Impacts of Replacing Short Car Trips with Cycling: A Health Impact Assessment Study

Agricultural Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions in Ireland are projected to increase up to 21 Mt CO2eq by 2030 mainly driven by increased dairy cow numbers and increased nitrogen fertiliser use. In response to the growing public awareness of the GHG emissions' environmental impact, the Irish government published the Climate Action Plan in 2019, which identifies the agricultural sector's leading role in reducing GHG emission and increasing carbon removals to achieve the national GHG emission targets by 2030. Marginal Abatement Cost Curves (MACCs) on Irish GHG emissions have projected the total technically feasible mitigation potential for the Irish agriculture, forestry and land use (AFOLU) sector to be sufficient enough to achieve the set targets by 2030. Although these mitigation measures are available and when implemented, would mostly lead to a win-win situation, the voluntary adaptation rate by farmers is low. This study addresses the most significant determinants of voluntary adoption of mitigation measures by systematically examining existing literature on how and to what extent non-price determinants affectthe voluntary adoption rate of technically feasible mitigation measures in the Irish afolu sector. The main identified nonprice determining factors were the degree of farmers' awareness regarding man-made GHG emissions, receiving agrienvironmental advice, implementation costs, profitability and size of farms, land quality and the type of farm enterprise. Integrating the gained results in the former macc analysis enabled us to adopt the implementation rates of the cost-efficient afolu mitigation measures accordingly. The non-price determinants impact the voluntary uptake rate of AFOLU mitigation measures to the extent that the adjusted total Irish AFOLU abatement potential is 47% lower than technically feasible. Considering that 51.6% of the total estimated AFOLU abatement potential in 2030 is offset through Irish forestry, which at current afforestation rate will turn into a net carbon source by 2035, a significant gap occurs to any potential Irish and EU GHG reduction targets. To substantially help bring the nexus between agricultural development and GHG emission targets in Ireland closer together, policy measures, that differentiate between the different type of AFOLU mitigation measures, need to be implemented to enhance the uptake rate of cost-beneficial and cost-effective measures. This would have the potential to reduce the level of agricultural GHG emissions by 2030 in a way that it would converge towards possible EU and Irish GHG emission reduction targets.

Många berättar om de ekonomiska vinster de gjort på börsen under senaste åren, och hur lätt pengarna rullat in på deras konton. Med en liten inblick i finansmarknaden och genom att titta på A-ekonomi då och då så blir i stort sett alla aktieaffärer lyckade. Vi hör dock sällan någon berätta om folks dåliga aktieaffärer. Börsen verkar med andra ord vara en guldgruva för dem som investerar där. Med hjälp av dyra aktierekommendationer kan man göra ännu större vinster enligt en rad olika fondkommissionär. Betting är en trend som aldrig tycks ta slut. Även där påpekar spelbolagen hur lätt det är att ta hem vinster, bara man har lite kunskap blir man en vinnare. Och vem vill inte bli det? Syftet med denna uppsats är att reda ut nämnda påstående. Är det så lätt som visa försöker påvisa att öka sina likvida medel med hjälp av en smärre aktiekunskap? Denna studie försöker visa hur det egentligen ligger till i denna fråga. Vem vinner när kunskap ställs mot slump i spel- och aktievärlden? I denna uppsats vill vi undersöka likheterna av slumpens betydelse vid kortsiktiga placeringar i aktier och spel på multibet. Med hjälp av Random Walk-teorin vill vi se om det finns likheter mellan att köpa aktier på börsen och att spela på multibet. För att få en bredare kunskap inom detta ämne så har vi byggt upp en teoridel i denna uppsats som tar upp elementära och relevanta grundstenar inom dessa ämnen. Det dyker upp en rad olika frågetecken under resans gång, men dessa försöker vi besvara så gott det går ännu längre fram i uppsatsen. De slutsatser vi kommit fram till med hjälp av vår undersökning är att slumpen har en stor betydelse på aktie- respektive spelmarknaden. Men däremot tror vi inte att den tekniska och fundamentala analysen ska förkastas, den kan i viss mån vara till hjälp.

Understanding greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from natural gas systems is essential for transitioning to a low-carbon economy. This work estimates well-through-transmission GHG emissions of the US natural gas from one million wells covering 91% production in 2023. A high-resolution US oil and gas production area map is developed to harmonize spatial and tabular data from the oil and natural gas (O&NG) supply chain. We systematically integrate latest aerial campaign measurement into natural gas life cycle GHG emission estimates, capturing methane fugitives with better characterization of superemitter events. More than ten public and commercial data sets are integrated with an engineering-based unit process life cycle assessment (LCA) model. The estimated total GHG emissions from the US gas sector are 719 MMT CO2eq, more than twice the estimates of the US Environmental Protection Agency. The average well-through-transmission carbon intensity (CI) for US natural gas is 15.99 [15.14, 16.90] gCO2eq/MJ, with an upstream (exploration through processing) CI of 12.27 [11.84, 12.68] gCO2eq/MJ and a midstream (transmission) CI of 3.72 [3.30, 4.22] gCO2eq/MJ (bracketed values indicate uncertainty ranges). Methane fugitive and venting account for 61% and 21% of the upstream CI, an order of magnitude higher than flaring contributions (2.1%). Reducing methane fugitive and venting loss rates by 75% would reduce the upstream CI by half.

In this paper, we used the life-cycle analysis (LCA) method to evaluate the energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of natural gas (NG) distributed generation (DG) projects in China. We took the China Resources Snow Breweries (CRSB) NG DG project in Sichuan province of China as a base scenario and compared its life cycle energy consumption and GHG emissions performance against five further scenarios. We found the CRSB DG project (all energy input is NG) can reduce GHG emissions by 22%, but increase energy consumption by 12% relative to the scenario, using coal combined with grid electricity as an energy input. The LCA also indicated that the CRSB project can save 24% of energy and reduce GHG emissions by 48% relative to the all-coal scenario. The studied NG-based DG project presents major GHG emissions reduction advantages over the traditional centralized energy system. Moreover, this reduction of energy consumption and GHG emissions can be expanded if the extra electricity from the DG project can be supplied to the public grid. The action of combining renewable energy into the NG DG system can also strengthen the dual merit of energy conservation and GHG emissions reduction. The marginal CO2 abatement cost of the studied project is about 51 USD/ton CO2 equivalent, which is relatively low. Policymakers are recommended to support NG DG technology development and application in China and globally to boost NG utilization and control GHG emissions.

Abstract. The Paris Agreement commits 197 countries to achieve climate stabilisation at a global average surface temperature less than 2 ∘C above pre-industrial times using nationally determined contributions (NDCs) to demonstrate progress. Numerous industrialised economies have targets to achieve territorial climate neutrality by 2050, primarily in the form of “net zero” greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, particular uncertainty remains over the role of countries' agriculture, forestry, and other land use (AFOLU) sectors for reasons including the potential trade-offs between GHG mitigation and food security, a non-zero emission target for methane as a short-lived GHG, and the requirement for AFOLU to act as a net sink to offset residual emissions from other sectors. These issues are represented at a coarse level in integrated assessment models (IAMs) that indicate the role of AFOLU in global pathways towards climate stabilisation. However, there is an urgent need to determine appropriate AFOLU management strategies at a national level within NDCs. Here, we present a new model designed to evaluate detailed AFOLU scenarios at national scale using the example of Ireland, where approximately 40 % of national GHG emissions originate from AFOLU. GOBLIN (General Overview for a Backcasting approach of Livestock INtensification) is designed to run randomised scenarios of agricultural activities and land use combinations within biophysical constraints (e.g. available land area, livestock productivities, fertiliser-driven grass yields, and forest growth rates). Using AFOLU emission factors from national GHG inventory reporting, GOBLIN calculates annual GHG emissions out to the selected target year for each scenario (2050 in this case). The long-term dynamics of forestry are represented up to 2120 so that scenarios can also be evaluated against the Paris Agreement commitment to achieve a balance between emissions and removals over the second half of the 21st century. Filtering randomised scenarios according to compliance with specific biophysical definitions (GHG time series) of climate neutrality will provide scientific boundaries for appropriate long-term actions within NDCs. We outline the rationale and methodology behind the development of GOBLIN, with an emphasis on biophysical linkages across food production, GHG emissions, and carbon sinks at a national level. We then demonstrate how GOBLIN can be applied to evaluate different scenarios in relation to a few possible simple definitions of “climate neutrality”, discussing opportunities and limitations.

Drivers of electricity GHG emissions and the role of natural gas in mexican energy transition

The recent rapid expansion of natural gas developments and utilization worldwide are bringing into focus the need to improve understanding and characterization of greenhouse gas emission sources, including methane, associated with petroleum and natural gas systems. New production technologies and practices, including those involving hydraulic fracturing, necessitate a thorough review of existing quantification methods for fugitive methane emissions from venting, flaring, and equipment leaks associated with petroleum and natural gas systems and operations. In the past few years widely divergent estimates have emerged regarding methane emissions from the U.S. natural gas industry sector. Some discrepancies noted by industry surveys have led to a thorough review of newly available information and are leading to the improvement of estimation methods and emission factors associated with activities that comprise natural gas systems. This has manifested itself in the engineering estimations that are used for compiling the national U. S. GHG Emissions Inventory and in the methods used by companies for reporting under the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency mandatory Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program. This paper will present results of a comparative analysis of GHG emissions data, including methane, for key industry segments such as on-shore natural gas production and natural gas processing and their contribution to the so called "petroleum and natural gas systems". The data analyzed will contrast the "top-down" assessments used in developing the U.S. GHG Emissions Inventory with the "bottom-up" estimation of actual emissions as reported under Subpart W of the GHGRP. The analysis will provide a comparison of the estimation methods and evaluation of the contribution of key sources to overall methane emissions. The ultimate goal of this effort is to incorporate the new information that is becoming available into consistent methods that can be used both for national GHG inventory development and for corporate reporting. Harmonization of these methods is expected to contribute to informing the public debate on natural gas use and its role in mitigating overall GHG emissions.

Safety First, Environment Last: Improving Regulation of Gas Pipeline Leaks

Domestic natural gas production has increased significantly in recent years, with technological advances enabling the development of vast shale gas reserves previously considered inaccessible. Increased shale gas development has had many benefits, enhancing energy security, reducing consumer costs, and stimulating economic growth. However, it has also presented new challenges, particularly for environmental management.
\nNatural gas is often touted as a “clean” fossil fuel. Supporters emphasize that, compared to coal and oil, the combustion of natural gas produces fewer emissions of mercury and other air toxins that threaten public health. Moreover, natural gas combustion also results in fewer climate-damaging greenhouse gas emissions than coal or oil. These savings at the point of combustion may, however, be offset by greenhouse gas emissions further up the supply chain.
\nMethane – a short-lived but potent greenhouse gas – is released throughout the natural gas production process. Significant releases occur during the transportation of natural gas, including as a result of leaks from aging pipelines. Much of the pipeline system was installed over forty years ago and has degraded over time. Corrosion and graphitization have led to cracking of pipelines, resulting in gas leakage.
\nRecognizing this, the Department of Transportation’s Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) has called on pipeline operators to accelerate the replacement of aging pipeline systems. While some progress has been made, it is likely to be several years before operators complete all replacement work. In the interim, significant amounts of natural gas may be lost as a result of leaks from aging pipelines. Moreover, even after those pipelines are replaced, leakage may continue due to cracks and/or other defects in newer systems.
\nPipeline leaks present a major risk to public safety and cause significant environmental damage. Seeking to minimize these adverse impacts, the PHMSA has adopted regulations governing leak detection and repair under the Natural Gas Pipeline Safety Act of 1968 (49 U.S.C. § 1671 et seq.). The Act requires adoption of regulations that are “designed to meet the need for gas pipeline safety . . . and protecting the environment.” The current regulations do not, however, achieve these dual purposes. Rather, the regulations focus primarily on minimizing risks to public safety and do little to advance environmental outcomes.
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\nThe PHMSA now has an opportunity to enhance regulation of gas leaks so as to provide for greater environmental protection in accordance with the Natural Gas Pipeline Safety Act (49 U.S.C. § 1671 et seq.). In January 2015, as part of its efforts to curb methane emissions from natural gas production, the Obama Administration announced plans to update the regulations. To inform the update process, this White Paper analyzes the current regulations with respect to leak detection, repair, and reporting. It recommends changes to those regulations designed to encourage improved leak management. These include:
\nPipelines should be regularly inspected for leaks. Federal regulations currently require pipeline operators to conduct system inspections to detect leaks. Frequent inspections must be conducted, one or more times per year, in business districts and other populated areas. In more remote locations, however, several years may elapse between inspections. Consequently, in those locations, leaks may go undetected for extended periods. To ensure prompt leak detection, all pipelines should be inspected for leaks at least annually. More frequent inspections may be required for pipelines at high risk of gas leakage.
\nLeaks detected on the pipeline system should be repaired promptly. Pipeline operators classify leaks based on the risk they pose to public safety. The most serious leaks, classified as hazardous to the public, must be repaired promptly. Leaks classified as non-hazardous can, however, generally be left unrepaired. The classification of a leak is based largely on its proximity to buildings, rather than its size. Thus, leaks in isolated areas may be classified as non-hazardous and left unrepaired, even if they release substantial amounts of natural gas. Going forward, pipeline operators should be required to repair all large leaks (regardless of location) immediately and smaller leaks within one year of detection. It is likely to be simplest to include this requirement in the federal regulations; however, the requirement could also be incorporated into state pipeline safety rules.
\nGas losses due to pipeline leaks should be measured and reported. Pipeline operators are required to report, to the PHMSA, the number of leaks repaired each year. Notably however, operators generally do not report the number of unrepaired leaks. Moreover, operators do not quantify the volume of gas lost through such leaks. This makes it difficult for regulators and others to assess the extent of gas leakage. To facilitate such assessment, operators should be required to accurately measure the volume of gas lost through leaks. The results of these measurements should be reported to the PHMSA. The PHMSA should make the reported measurements available to other interested parties.

Natural gas is believed to be a critical transitional energy source. However, natural gas pipelines, once failed, will contribute to a large amount of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, including methane from uncontrolled natural gas venting and carbon dioxide from flared natural gas. However, the GHG emissions caused by pipeline incidents are not included in the regular inventories, making the counted GHG amount deviate from the reality. This study, for the first time, establishes an inventory framework for GHG emissions including all natural gas pipeline incidents in the two of the largest gas producers and consumers in North America (United States and Canada) from 1980s to 2021. The inventory comprises GHG emissions resulting from gathering and transmission pipeline incidents in a total of 24 states or regions in the United States between 1970 and 2021, local distribution pipeline incidents in 22 states or regions between 1970 and 2021, as well as natural gas pipeline incidents in a total of 7 provinces or regions in Canada between 1979 and 2021. These datasets can improve the accuracy of regular emission inventories by covering more emission sources in the United States and Canada and provide essential information for climate-oriented pipeline integrity management.