Estimating Deer Abundance in Suburban Areas with Infrared-Triggered Cameras

Burgeoning deer populations in urban and suburban areas, along with the inherent problems stemming from this increase, are becoming increasingly widespread. To address these problems, wildlife biologists need quality baseline data of herd composition for harvest and treatment forecasts for management and fertility control research programs. In this study, we provide white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) population data from 4 areas where localized suburban white-tailed deer populations were substantially reduced utilizing sharpshooting as a management tool. In each area, legal hunting was nonexistent for >10 years preceding the sharpshooting program. The areas ranged in size from 300 ha to 3,000 ha. We annually culled from 124 to 566 deer per area and reduced herds by 35% to 90% in a given year. Biological traits were gathered from harvested deer (n = 3,242) at each site to ascertain herd demographics and fitness. The results from these harvest programs indicate that sex and age structure of non-hunted deer populations are fairly uniform and predictable. There were consistently 60% females and 40% males in these environments. Also, these deer populations were comprised of ~40% yearling and adult females, ~20% yearling and adult males, and ~40% fawns.

Simple SummaryWe examined a white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) population with evidence of decline in the Southern Appalachian region of the United States. In the Chattahoochee National Forest (CNF) in northern Georgia, deer harvest numbers and hunter success rates have drastically reduced over the last few decades, suggesting a decline in deer density. Low fawn survival (16%) was also recently recorded, prompting further concern regarding deer population sustainability. In the CNF, we radio-collared 14 yearling and 45 adult female white-tailed deer along with 71 fawns during 2018–2020 to estimate the annual survival and fecundity of each age class. We modeled future population growth (λ) over 10 years to evaluate the current rate of decline and various other management scenarios. Projections indicated that the white-tailed deer population will decline by an average of 4.0% annually under current conditions, and only scenarios that incorporated both antlerless harvest restrictions and improved fawn survival will lead to positive population growth. Thus, these approaches should be emphasized in future management plans within the Southern Appalachian region to facilitate recovery. This methodology can be applied by other wildlife managers with knowledge of site-specific vital rates to inform potential management strategies.Although generally abundant, white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations in the southeastern United States have recently experienced several localized declines attributed to reduced fawn recruitment following the establishment of coyotes (Canis latrans). The Southern Appalachians is a mountainous region suggested to be experiencing white-tailed deer declines, as harvest numbers and hunter success rates have substantially decreased in northern Georgia since 1979. Low fawn survival (16%) was also recently documented in the Chattahoochee National Forest (CNF) in northern Georgia, necessitating further examination. We radio-collared 14 yearling and 45 adult female white-tailed deer along with 71 fawns during 2018–2020 in the CNF to estimate field-based vital rates (i.e., survival and fecundity) and parameterize stage-structured population models. We projected population growth rates (λ) over 10 years to evaluate the current rate of decline and various other management scenarios. Our results indicated that the observed population would decline by an average of 4.0% annually (λ = 0.960) under current conditions. Only scenarios including antlerless harvest restrictions in addition to improved fawn survival resulted in positive growth (λ = 1.019, 1.085), suggesting these measures are likely necessary for population recovery in the region. This approach can be applied by wildlife managers to inform site-specific management strategies.

Two species of deer, each with 2 subspecies, are currently found in the Pacific Northwest, USA, of the contiguous lower 48 states (Smith 1991, Demarais et al. 2000, Kie and Czech 2000). In general, mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) are found east of the crest of the Cascade Mountains of Washington and Oregon, whereas Columbian black-tailed deer (O. h. columbianus) are found to the west of that crest (Fig. 1). Today, Columbian white-tailed deer (O. virginianus leucurus) are found at the mouth of the Columbia River (southwest Washington and northwest Oregon, USA) and in southwestern Oregon (Smith 1985); the northwest white-tailed deer (O. v. ochrourus) is found in northeastern Oregon and eastern Washington (Ingles 1965, Johnson and Cassidy 1997, Verts and Carraway 1998). Increase in the abundance of both subspecies of white-tailed deer since 1935 has been attributed to modern management practices (O’Farrell and Hedlund 1972; Smith 1985). Historic records indicate that white-tailed deer were abundant in Washington and Oregon until the second half of the nineteenth century when habitat modification and human predation depleted the local population (Bailey 1936, Cowan 1936, Scheffer 1940). McCabe and McCabe (1984, 1997) imply that white-tailed deer may not have been present in the Portland Basin during the nineteenth century. Archaeological data indicate that white-tailed deer were indeed in this area (Livingston 1987). Other biologists (Bailey 1936, Verts and Carraway 1998) and some paleoecologists (Martin and Szuter 1999) suggest that deer were rare in western Oregon and western Washington in the early nineteenth century based on the fact that Lewis and Clark’s Corps of Discovery found very few deer during the winter of 1805–1806. Other paleoecologists suggest they may have been relatively abundant (Lyman and Wolverton 2002). Euroamerican settlement and forest clearing is thought to have resulted in larger deer populations, especially in the early twentieth century after harvest rates came under legal control (Brown 1961, Verts and Carraway 1998). The Columbian white-tailed deer was one of the original 78 species listed as federally endangered in 1968. Because the Columbian whitetailed deer is federally endangered, knowledge of its population history could assist in management decisions aimed at preservation of a viable population. Fluctuating population size during the nineteenth century raises the question of which ecological benchmark (Hunter 1996) wildlife managers should aim for. Archaeological evidence contributes to answering this question (Lyman and Cannon 2004). Livingston (1987) used discriminate function analysis to distinguish deer species represented by mandibular tooth rows recovered from 24 archaeological sites dating to the last 6,000 years in Oregon and Washington. Livingston’s data suggest that both the distribution and abundance of white-tailed deer decreased subsequent to Euroamerican settlement during the mid-nineteenth century. None of the specimens she examined, however, clearly postdated settlement of the area by Euroamericans. It was also unclear whether any of the specimens she studied dated to the late pre(Euroamerican) contact period. I present quantitative data from archaeological contexts on relative abundances of deer species that span the late precontact and the early postcontact periods. These data reveal the population history of Columbian white-tailed deer and Columbia black-tailed deer just prior to the influence of Euroamerican settlement and land use. I used these data to search for correlations between changes in deer population size and other variables such as human population density, climatic change, and habitat change in an effort to identify variables that might influence the survival of, particularly, the Columbian white-tailed deer population.

Background: Deer populations have been rising across North America for decades. At the Gault Nature Reserve in Quebec, half of which is open to the public, the population of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) has exceeded the region’s carrying capacity, estimated to be 5 deer/km2, since 1996. Given that heavy grazing profoundly impacts forests, the purpose of this paper was to investigate the potential influence of white-tailed deer on plant abundance and diversity at the Gault Nature Reserve. We hypothesized that the abundance of deer, and by extension the effect of deer on vegetation, was negatively correlated with the proximity and frequency of human visitors on pedestrian trails. Our alternative hypothesis was that the effect of deer on vegetation was positively correlated with human disturbance, which is greater on the public side of the reserve.Methods: We recorded the abundance and diversity of vascular plants along 14 transects of increasing distance from pedestrian trails on the public and private sides of the reserve.Results: Contrary to our hypothesis, generalized linear models indicated that overall, plant abundance and diversity declined significantly as the distance from trails increased and that the effect of distance was significantly different on the two sides of the reserve. Pearson correlation tests revealed that there was not a significant correlation between distance and plant abundance and diversity on the public side, although there was a significantly negative correlation between these variables on the private side.Limitations: White-tailed deer were not directly studied, which limited the inferences that could be made about their influence on plant abundance and diversity.Conclusion: The distance from trails was a strong determinant of plant abundance and diversity on the private of the reserve, but not on the public side, possibly because trail edges generally receive more sunlight and because the increased number of trails on the public side may have confounded our results. Although we did not find support for our hypothesis, the influence of trail edges on plant communities was reinforced. Researchers should continue to monitor the influence of white-tailed deer and forest managers should be mindful of edge effects when making decisions.

Author(s): VerCauteren, Kurt C.; Anderson, Charles W.; Van Deelen, Timothy R.; Drake, David; Walter, W. David; Vantassel, Stephen M.; Hygnstrom, Scott E. | Abstract: Declines in hunter recruitment coupled with dramatic growth in numbers of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) have challenged our ability to manage deer populations through traditional methods. We surveyed all state wildlife agencies and estimate the abundance of white-tailed deer in North America currently exceeds 30 million. Traditional methods of population management have been ineffective in reducing numbers of deer sufficiently in some environments. The only way to manage overabundant deer directly, cost-effectively, and in a timely fashion is through lethal methods. States currently are issuing record numbers of permits to hunters to increase harvest of white-tailed deer. Unfortunately, hunter participation has been declining in North America during the past two decades. Regulated commercial harvest would help state wildlife agencies manage overabundant populations of white-tailed deer andallow hunters to sell all orparts of harvested deer. We anticipate that many will criticize regulated commercial harvest of deer and claim that it is contrary to the North American Model of Wildlife Conservation (NAMWC). We can, however,argue that regulated commercial harvest meets all seven of the pillars of the NAMWC: 1) Wildlife is a natural resource of the public trust(state wildlife agencies willmanage deeranddeerwould continue to be a public resource). 2) No commercial use of wildlife [a direct reaction to exploitive and unsustainable market hunting in the 18th and 19th Centuries; commercial markets currently exist for other natural resources (e.g., furbearers, fish, timber); contemporary conservation values would not allow overexploitation; a framework for regulations, monitoring, and enforcement already isin place in every state]. 3) Democratic rule of law to regulate use of wildlife (commercial harvest of white-tailed deer would be highly regulated by wildlife agencies through public processes). 4) Hunting opportunity for all (anyone legally able to hold a deer hunting license would be eligible to apply for a Commercial Deer Harvest License (CDHL), CDHL programs would be implemented only where recreational hunting is proven inefficient or inappropriate). 5) No frivolous use of wildlife (CDHLs will beused to generate of food and other products, management would address risk to human health and safety andlosses ofagricultural resourcesto deer). 6) Wildlife is an international resource (has little to do with our proposed idea of managing overabundant resident populations of white-tailed deer, but a CDHL program may be applicable to any overabundant species, including internationally migratory species,such assnow geese,Chen caerulescens). 7) Science-based wildlife policy (a CDHL program would rely on science and research-based data to estimate densities before, during, and after commercial harvest). A CDHL program should be managed and distributed by state wildlife agencies, issued only to qualified individuals, enable harvest of an allotment of deer in areas targeted for population reduction, and permit the sale of whole carcasses and parts of harvested deer. Administration of a CDHL program will be taxing. State agencies alreadyareunderstaffed, but administrative and enforcement frameworks already exist for commercial harvest of publicly owned natural resources (e.g., furbearers, fish, timber) and the processing and handling of meat (e.g., USDA inspections). Revenue generated by CDHL programs could be directed back toward agencies and personnel who will administer and oversee these programs. Looking forward, we anticipate several issues mustbe addressed for regulated commercial harvestof deer to be accepted by agencies, hunters, and the public. The dogma against commercial use of wildlife may be well established. It may be difficult to mediate changesin attitudes in the wildlife community, stakeholders, and other publics. It will require adoption at all levels. State laws and regulations will need to be reviewed and some will have to be changed. Some will argue that we do not have the strength, stamina, or political will necessary to implement such broad sweeping changes. On the other hand, many wildlife managers will appreciate having an alternative tool for managing overabundant populations of white-tailed deer. We identified several benefits (reduce overabundant populations of deer; source of healthy, natural, green, locally-produced protein; economic growth, entrepreneurship, and market expansion; and public engagement and appreciation) and expected concerns associated with this concept(privatization of wildlife; overexploitation; food safety; competition with existing commodities; law enforcement; challenges of changing laws, regulations, and attitudes). We encourage a professional discussionof regulated commercial harvestto address the issue of overabundant white-tailed deer.

This study was conducted to determine the impact of predation on productivity of whitetailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in South Texas by removing predators from one area and comparing the results to a control area. A total of 188 coyotes (Canis latrans) and 120 bobcats (Lynx rufus) were removed during predator removal efforts on the approximately 5,400-acre (2,186-ha) experimental area from 1 February to 30 June 1971 and 1972. Aerial counts in 1971, a severe drought year, revealed a fawn:doe ratio of 0.47 in the experimental predator removal area compared to 0.12 in the control area. In 1972 more favorable climatic conditions led to higher deer productivity in both areas, but the relative difference between the two areas was maintained. The experimental area had a fawn:doe ratio of 0.82 compared to 0.32 on the control area. Counts from roads indicated a decline in fawn:doe ratio with increasing distance from the experimental area. These data indicate that deer populations in this locality could be increased with a very intensive predator control program. To justify such a predator control program on the basis of present information, however, a more intensive hunter harvest would probably be required to hold the deer herd below the density level where starvation, diseases, or other factors begin to take their toll. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 38(4):854-859 Regardless of underlying circumstances, certain canid predators have at times developed a specialization for preying on ungulates to the point of drastically curtailing the population (Errington 1946). Selecting against the young of these conspicuous, relatively slow-breeding forms would be potentially very destructive (Allee et al. 1949:374). That predators can specialize by preying on the young of an ungulate species has been suggested by studies involving the coyote and antelope (Antilocapra americana) in Texas (Jones 1949) and Arizona (Arrington and Edwards 1951), the lynx (Lynx canadensis) and caribou (Rangifer tarandus) in Newfoundland (Bergerud 1971), the black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) and blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi) in South Africa (du Plessis 1972), and the coyote and whitetailed deer in South Texas (White 1966:83, Knowlton 1968). Recent studies with ear-marked (Knowlto 1964) and radio-tagged (Cook et al. 1971) white-tailed deer fawns on the Welder Wildlife Refuge in South Texas have suggested that coyote predation was responsible for substantial juvenile mortality, and that this was likely the major factor stabilizing the dense and generally healthy deer herd on the refuge. Speculation has arisen concerning the fate of white-tailed deer fawns in other portions of South Texas. On th Ki g Ranch in Kleberg County the deer population is maintained at around 3-6 deer per 100 acres (40.5 ha) (Kiel, unpublished data). On other areas of the Rio Grande Pla n of South Texas an average of 3.5-5.5 deer per 100 acres exists (Harwell and Kierce 1972), whereas on the Welder Refuge pproximately 15-18 deer per 100 acres are fo nd (Cook et al. 1971). The deer population in much of the Central Mineral Region of Texas also approximates 18 per 100 acres (Teer et al. 1965). Teer et al. (1965) found average embryo counts for adult white-tailed deer to range from 0.96 to 1.29, whereas yearlings averaged 0.75. Average embryo counts of adult 1 Research supported by the Caesar Kleberg Research Program in Wildlife Ecology through the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station. 854 J. Wildl. Manage. 38 (4):1974 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.163 on Sun, 20 Nov 2016 04:24:27 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms PREDATOR REMOVAL AND DEER o Beasom 855 deer in South Texas have been found to range between 1.24 and 1.81 per doe (Barron and Harwell 1973). Illige (1951) found an average production of 1.28 embryos per doe (adults and yearlings) in a county adjoining the present study area. Postpartum fawn:doe (including adults and yearlings) ratios in Kleberg County, South Texas, however, are rarely greater than 0.3 (Kiel, unpublished data). Evidence suggests that the relatively low whitetail net productivity is a result of high fetal or early postnatal mortality. This study originated as part of a more intensive study on Rio Grande wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia). It was designed to investigate the effects of predator removal on net productivity of both the turkey and white-tailed deer. Gratitude is extended to W. H. Kiel, Jr., biologist, King Ranch, Inc. who provided advice and assistance throughout the study. The enthusiastic field support of D. A. Stiles, J. C. Hutchinson, W. A. Sandifer, H. H. Haucke, R. G. Sims, R. L. Mitchell, and F. S. Guthery during certain phases of the project is gratefully appreciated. E. D. Ables offered many helpful suggestions on the preparation of the manuscript.

Matthew A. Cronin, Ernest R. Vyse, David G. Cameron, Genetic Relationships between Mule Deer and White-Tailed Deer in Montana, The Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 52, No. 2 (Apr., 1988), pp. 320-328

We tested the accuracy of the Petersen-Lincoln estimate on the enclosed white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) population of the George Reserve in Michigan, where the approximate size and composition of the population was known. Up to 68% of the population and 80% of the adult females were marked individually during the study. Recapture was based on observation of marked animals in the field. Petersen-Lincoln estimates were obtained for 32 consecutive months, from September 1968 through April 1971. Because births and deaths were known, and the enclosing fence prevented ingress and egress, the Bailey (1952) model for a closed population was applied. Petersen-Lincoln estimates by month were frequently inaccurate and were skewed toward overestimation. Eighty percent of the females were marked but estimates of females were inaccurate. There was no relationship between standard error of the estimate and accuracy. Increasing the percent of the population marked did not improve accuracy. The number of marked animals observed was an important variable for sample sizes 10. Sex and age classes were not captured or observed in proportion to their presence in the population. Age, spatial location of home range, and habitat all contributed to observability bias of females. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 52(3):534-544 Accurate estimates of wildlife populations are a major objective of most management programs. A number of theoretically sound estimation methods (Seber 1973, Caughley 1977, Davis and Winstead 1980) fail in practice because underlying assumptions cannot be met or the criteria for application are too restricted to be achievable under field conditions. Achievable techniques that produce reasonable results despite limitations need to be verified by empirical studies. Many ungulates are relatively observable and lend themselves to mark-resight methods (Rice and Harder 1977). Nevertheless, the method is seldom employed because of high cost and effort in capture for marking (Silvy et al. 1977) and the prevalent belief that the method is inaccurate. The best known evaluation of the Petersen-Lincoln estimate on ungulates was by Strandgaard (1967), who found that about 75% of a population of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) needed to be marked before reasonable estimates were obtained. Recently Bartmann et al. (1987) reported that >45% of a mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) population needed to be marked to obtain reliable population estimates. Mark-recapture methods are particularly sensitive to violation of the assumption that animals have equal catchability (heterogeneity) and observability (Burnham and Overton 1978, Otis et al. 1978, White et al. 1982). Catchability varies by season, weather, and sex and age class (Mattfeld et al. 1974, Garrott and White 1982, Bartmann et al. 1987). Unfortunately, tests on sample data for assumptions of equal catchability are usually insensitive to violation of the assumptions (Eberhardt 1969, Roff 1973). Comparison of mark-recapture estimates with alternative estimates (Dasmann and Taber 1955, Flyger 1959, Krebs 1966, Smith 1968) are better than no validation but do not rule out equal inaccuracy among several methods, or suggest which is more accurate when results differ. In this paper we report on an empirical test of the Petersen-Lincoln estimate as an estimator of white-tailed deer population size during 32 consecutive months on the Edwin S. George Reserve in southeastern Michigan. This 464-ha area This content downloaded on Wed, 19 Dec 2012 22:19:23 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions J. Wildl. Manage. 52(3):1988 ESTIMATES OF DEER * McCullough and Hirth 535 is enclosed by a deer-proof fence, and reconstructed population estimates were accurate (McCullough 1979, 1982b). Because immigration and emigration were eliminated by the deerproof fence, and the number of deer born and dying were known, many of the difficulties with mark-recapture methods were avoided; a simple statistical model for closed populations could be used. Furthermore, because the age and sex structure of the population was known from reconstruction, the contribution of biases in capturing and subsequent observation by sex and age to inaccuracy of population estimates could be evaluated; i.e., were animals captured and observed in proportion to their presence in the population? Data from the George Reserve deer population allow empirical evaluation of accuracy of the Petersen-Lincoln estimates, empirical variance of the Petersen-Lincoln estimate, influence of sample sizes on bias of estimators of model parameters, and influence of unequal catchability and observability on accuracy. Equal catchability could be tested by comparing the sex and age composition in the reconstructed population to that of the trapped sample. Equal observability could be tested in 2 ways: compare sex and age composition in the reconstructed population to that in the observed sample or compare marked to unmarked ratios in the reconstructed population by sex and age to that in the observed sample. We thank N. G. Hairston and F. C. Evans for their cooperation in making this research possible. B. E. Coblentz, J. Garry, E. Baker, P. G. Mickelson, H. M. Wilbur, and J. P. Clark helped with trapping and marking deer, and B. E. Coblentz helped with observation surveys. W. J. Zielinski and T. E. Kucera assisted in data analysis. M. C. Conner, D. C. Erman, M. L. Morrison, K. H. Pollock, S. J. Williamson, and several anonymous reviewers suggested improvements in the manuscript. The field work was done while we were at the School of Natural Resources, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. The study was supported by the National Science Foundation grants GB-6171 and GB-12958 to DRM, and a Caulkins Foundation fellowship and National Science Foundation traineeship to DHH.

Deer (Cervidae) are key components of many ecosystems and estimating deer abundance or density is important to understanding these roles. Many field methods have been used to estimate deer abundance and density, but the factors determining where, when, and why a method was used, and its usefulness, have not been investigated. We systematically reviewed journal articles published during 2004–2018 to evaluate spatio‐temporal trends in study objectives, methodologies, and deer abundance and density estimates, and determine how they varied with biophysical and anthropogenic attributes. We also reviewed the precision and bias of deer abundance estimation methods. We found 3,870 deer abundance and density estimates. Most estimates (58%) were for white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), red deer (Cervus elaphus), and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). The 6 key methods used to estimate abundance and density were pedestrian sign (track or fecal) counts, pedestrian direct counts, vehicular direct counts, aerial direct counts, motion‐sensitive cameras, and harvest data. There were regional differences in the use of these methods, but a general pattern was a temporal shift from using harvest data, pedestrian direct counts, and aerial direct counts to using pedestrian sign counts and motion‐sensitive cameras. Only 32% of estimates were accompanied by a measure of precision. The most precise estimates were from vehicular spotlight counts and from capture–recapture analysis of images from motion‐sensitive cameras. For aerial direct counts, capture–recapture methods provided the most precise estimates. Bias was robustly assessed in only 16 studies. Most abundance estimates were negatively biased, but capture–recapture methods were the least biased. The usefulness of deer abundance and density estimates would be substantially improved by 1) reporting key methodological details, 2) robustly assessing bias, 3) reporting the precision of estimates, 4) using methods that increase and estimate detection probability, and 5) staying up to date on new methods. The automation of image analysis using machine learning should increase the accuracy and precision of abundance estimates from direct aerial counts (visible and thermal infrared, including from unmanned aerial vehicles [drones]) and motion‐sensitive cameras, and substantially reduce the time and cost burdens of manual image analysis.

Previous reports have demonstrated gradual reductions of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations through immunocontraception, with stabilization occurring after 2-4 yr of treatment, and subsequent reductions of 6-10% annually. These studies employed porcine zona pellucida (PZP) vaccines that required two initial treatments and annual retreatments. From 2005 to 2010, 258 adult and yearling female deer on Fripp Island, South Carolina, were treated with one of several PZP preparations designed to produce 2+ yr of effective contraception with a single treatment. These included several preparations of SpayVac and of native PZP-adjuvant emulsion plus PZP and QA-21 in timed-release pellets. Deer were chemically immobilized, ear-tagged, and administered initial treatments by hand in February-March. Some treated deer were boosted remotely with PZP-adjuvant emulsion 1.5 - 4.5 yr after initial treatments. Ground-based distance sampling was used to estimate deer population density at Fripp Island, a resort community, and at a relatively undeveloped neighboring control site, Hunting Island. Most vaccine preparations tested reduced fawning rates by 75% to 95% for at least 1 yr. From 2005 to 2011, deer density on Fripp Island declined by 50%, from 72 deer/km(2) to 36 deer/km(2), an average annual reduction of 11%. In contrast, population density on the Hunting Island control site fluctuated between 2005 and 2011, averaging 23 deer/km(2) (range, 19-28 deer/km(2)). Population declines on Fripp Island were associated with an increase in the proportion of treated females and with a progressive decrease in winter fawn:doe ratios, from 1.21 fawns/doe in 2005 to 0.19 fawns/doe in 2010. Winter fawn:doe ratios averaged 1.36 fawns/doe (range, 0.84 - 1.62 fawns/doe) at the Hunting Island control site. Annual survivorship averaged approximately 79% among ear-tagged females. The rate at which deer populations diminished in association with PZP treatments on Fripp Island was higher than that seen at other study sites, although the reasons for the more rapid decline on Fripp Island are not well understood.

A model was derived for disease transmission in dynamic host populations and its application was demonstrated in forecasting possible outcomes of a bovine tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis) epidemic in a white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) population. The approach was mechanistic, based disease transmission on the probability of each susceptible individual becoming infected per unit time, and afforded the flexibility necessary to model epidemics in dynamic wildlife populations. This approach was applied to a sex- and age-structured deer population model. This model predicted that tuberculosis prevalence in a white-tailed deer population could rise from approximately 3% to about 21% over 25 yr, and that neither lowered deer survival nor lowered transmission would be completely effective in eliminating disease from the population. Maternal transmission appeared unimportant to modeled tuberculosis dynamics; in contrast, disease was not maintained for > 15 yr in models lacking lateral transmission.

In the Adirondack Park region of northern New York, USA, white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and moose (Alces alces) co-occur along a temperate-boreal forest ecotone. In this region, moose exist as a small and vulnerable low-density population and over-browsing by white-tailed deer is known to reduce regeneration, sustainability, and health of forests. Here, we assess the distribution and abundance of white-tailed deer at a broad spatial scale relevant for deer and moose management in northern New York. We used density surface modeling (DSM) under a conventional distance sampling framework, tied to a winter aerial survey, to create a spatially explicit estimate of white-tailed deer abundance and density across a vast, northern forest region. We estimated 16,352 white-tailed deer (95% CI 11,762–22,734) throughout the Adirondack Park with local density ranging between 0.00–5.73 deer/km2. Most of the Adirondack Park (91.2%) supported white-tailed deer densities of ≤2 individuals/km2. White-tailed deer density increased with increasing proximity to anthropogenic land cover such as timber cuts, roads, and agriculture and decreased in areas with increasing elevation and days with snow cover. We conclude that climate change will be more favorable for white-tailed deer than for moose because milder winters and increased growing seasons will likely have a pronounced influence on deer abundance and distribution across the Adirondack Park. Therefore, identifying specific environmental conditions facilitating the expansion of white-tailed deer into areas with low-density moose populations can assist managers in anticipating potential changes in ungulate distribution and abundance and to develop appropriate management actions to mitigate negative consequences such as disease spread and increased competition for limiting resources.

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations can expand greatly in suburban areas where hunting is limited or prohibited. Incorporating a hunting program for management purposes is often unfeasible due to property parcelization and varying opinions on deer management within each community. We present the case of Hidden Valley Lake, Indiana (707 ha), whose deer population was effectively reduced by archery hunting within a dense human population. Prior to implementing a managed archery program, deer density estimates exceeded 60 deer/km 2 . After the first year of the managed archery hunt, where 230 deer (~36 deer/km 2 ) were removed, deer density estimates for Hidden Valley and the surrounding area were greatly reduced. After a second year of hunting, 300 deer had been removed, and harvest-to-effort ratios decreased dramatically from the first to the second year of the program. Our study suggests that a managed archery program within heavily populated suburban areas can lower deer densities quickly and effectively under the right circumstances. The ability to provide access for hunters, cooperation and flexibility of state regulations, resilient community leaders, and motivated local hunters are all necessary to reduce a localized deer population within a brief time period.

There are many known species of Bartonella, Gram-negative bacteria that can cause febrile illness and fatality in humans and animals. These pathogens are often transmitted through hematophagous arthropod vectors such as fleas and lice. Despite increasing awareness about Bartonella spp. and their zoonotic potential, as well as existing literature on Bartonella spp. in cervids, little is known about the diversity of Bartonella spp. in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and their associated keds in the southeastern US. We examined the prevalence and diversity of Bartonella spp. in an enclosed herd of white-tailed deer and their ectoparasites, deer keds (Lipoptena mazamae), in Alabama. The overall prevalence of Bartonella infection in this population of deer was 16% (10/63) and 24% (23/96) in keds associated with deer that we sampled. Three species of Bartonella were identified in both deer and their keds: Bartonella bovis, Bartonella schoenbuchensis, and Bartonella sp. 1. Additionally, Bartonella melophagi was detected in white-tailed deer but not in the sampled keds. The detection of four Bartonella species in one population of white-tailed deer, three of which have known zoonotic potential, highlights the importance of Bartonella diversity within host species.

Conducting surveys from blinds when supplemental feed (bait) has been provided has not been evaluated for estimating parameters of ungulate populations. We conducted blind count surveys of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in a 214-ha enclosure in central Texas, USA, in 2007 and 2008 to address 2 main objectives: 1) to evaluate a blind count survey protocol developed for use on small parcels of land, and 2) to use data collected from blind count surveys to conduct simulations to evaluate the reliability of abundance and sex ratio estimates obtained from Bowden's estimator. In each year population abundance (2007: 60; 2008: 48) and sex ratio (M:F, 2007: 0.58; 2008: 0.71) were known as were sighting frequencies of every animal. The enclosure had 5 blinds and we baited each blind with corn. We encountered many deer during surveys because there were only 2 deer in 2007 and 1 deer in 2008 that we did not view from blinds ≥1 time. To evaluate bias and precision of abundance and sex ratio estimates we conducted 10,000 bootstrap simulations. We evaluated both parameters in relation to the percentage of each population marked, number of surveys conducted from blinds, and whether surveys were conducted in the morning, evening, or both morning and evening. Also, we evaluated abundance in relation to whether we identified animals with unique marks to individual, and we evaluated sex ratio in relation to intersexual distribution of marks. Abundance estimates were less biased and more precise when we uniquely identified all marked animals and 40–70% of the population was marked. Sex ratio estimates were less biased when 40–70% of the population was marked and surveys were conducted in the morning and evening. Sex ratio estimates, however, were less precise than abundance estimates. Unbiased estimates of white-tailed deer population parameters can be obtained from blind count surveys conducted on small parcels of enclosed land and when animals are baited.