Establishment of the damage tolerance criterion of projectile-borne electronics in the high-g extreme environment

All in an engineer’s life

As the degree of difficulty in synthesizing single crystals at high pressure and temperature increases, powder X-ray diffraction becomes a primary technique for determination of crystal structure, unit cell parameters as a function of pressure and temperature, and phase transformations. The use of intense synchrotron radiation has revolutionized high-pressure and high-temperature research. Increases in X-ray intensity by several orders of magnitude have enabled researchers to study very small samples and collect diffraction data in time scale on the order of a minute. Such advances have opened new possibilities for studying materials under extreme high pressure and temperature conditions and time-dependent kinetic problems. Diamond-anvil cell and large-volume multi-anvil apparatus are the primary high-pressure tools used to simulate pressure-temperature conditions of Earth and planetary interiors and to study material properties and phase transformations at high pressure and temperature. The coupling of these techniques with synchrotron X radiation has made in situ diffraction measurements possible at simultaneous high pressure and temperature. Increasingly fast accumulation of in situ data has dramatically increased our knowledge of material behavior at high pressure and temperature. In this paper, we review high-pressure and high-temperature techniques used at synchrotron facilities. Each technique has its own advantages and disadvantages that determine its own unique capability and applications. The large-volume apparatus, capable of generating high temperatures (>2000°C) at moderate pressures ( 100 GPa) at moderate temperatures (<900°C), has been extensively used for in situ measurements of P-V-T equations of state and non-quenchable phase transitions in metals, oxides, and sulfides. We also review synchrotron powder X-ray diffraction techniques and optical arrangements used for data acquisition at high pressure and temperature. Although the energy-dispersive diffraction technique has been the …

Facile Access to Polar-Functionalized Ultrahigh Molecular Weight Polyethylene at Ambient Conditions

A realistic interaction potential model approach by including temperature effects is developed to study phase transition, elastic properties and thermo-physical properties at very high pressures and temperatures. This approach is effectively able to explain the inter-atomic interaction involved at high temperature and high pressure as it includes the three-body interactions. Earlier works overlooked the three-body interactions at high temperature and pressures. Moreover, the phase-transition pressures of MgO crystal at high temperatures including the three-body interaction are computed for the first time. Elastic behavior, anisotropic factor and Debye temperature of MgO at high pressures and temperatures are also reported.

The electronic spin state of Fe 2+ in ferropericlase, (Mg 0.75 Fe 0.25) O, transitions from a high-spin (spin unpaired) to low-spin (spin paired) state within the Earth’s mid-lower mantle region. To better understand the local electronic environment of high-spin Fe 2+ ions in ferropericlase near the transition, we obtained synchrotron Mössbauer spectra (SMS) of (Mg 0.75 ,Fe 0.25 )O in externally heated and laser-heated diamond anvil cells at relevant high pressures and temperatures. Results show that the quadrupole splitting (QS) of the dominant high-spin Fe 2+ site decreases with increasing temperature at static high pressure. The QS values at constant pressure are fitted to a temperature-dependent Boltzmann distribution model, which permits estimation of the crystal-field splitting energy (Δ 3 ) between the d xy and d xz or d zy orbitals of the t 2g states in a distorted octahedral Fe 2+ site. The derived Δ 3 increases from approximately 36 meV at 1 GPa to 95 meV at 40 GPa, revealing that both high pressure and high temperature have significant effects on the 3d electronic shells of Fe 2+ in ferropericlase. The SMS spectra collected from the laser-heated diamond cells within the time window of 146 ns also indicate that QS significantly decreases at very high temperatures. A larger splitting of the energy levels at high temperatures and pressures should broaden the spin crossover in ferropericlase because the degeneracy of energy levels is partially lifted. Our results provide information on the hyperfine parameters and crystal-field splitting energy of high-spin Fe 2+ in ferropericlase at high pressures and temperatures, relevant to the electronic structure of iron in oxides in the deep lower mantle.

As a step toward resolving current discrepancies among ultrahigh-pressure melting curves obtained with the laser-heated diamond cell, we critically evaluate two aspects of the experiments that require further examination: (i) the criteria used to detect that melting has taken place, and (ii) the methods employed for measuring spatially variable temperatures. A review of recent efforts illustrates how defining reliable melting criteria remains problematical in many experiments, whereas current and prospective advances in imaging spectroradiometry can yield robust methods for determining the temperature distribution within the laser-heated diamond cell.

Archaea are known to inhabit some of the most extreme environments on Earth. The ability of archaea possessing membrane bilayers to adapt to high temperature (>85°C) and high pressure (>1,000 bar) environments is proposed to be due to the presence of apolar polyisoprenoids at the midplane of the bilayer. In this work, we study the response of this novel membrane architecture to both high temperature and high hydrostatic pressure using neutron diffraction. A mixture of two diether, phytanyl chain lipids (DoPhPC and DoPhPE) and squalane was used to model this novel architecture. Diffraction data indicate that at high temperatures a stable coexistence of fluid lamellar phases exists within the membrane and that stable coexistence of these phases is also possible at high pressure. Increasing the amount of squalane in the membrane regulates the phase separation with respect to both temperature and pressure, and also leads to an increase in the lamellar repeat spacing. The ability of squalane to regulate the ultrastructure of an archaea-like membrane at high pressure and temperature supports the hypothesis that archaea can use apolar lipids as an adaptive mechanism to extreme conditions.

Dislocation microstructures of MgSiO 3 perovskite at a high pressure and temperature condition

The Bozi 3 reservoir is an ultra-deep condensate reservoir (−7800 m) with a high temperature (138.24 °C) and high pressure (104.78 MPa), leading to complex phase behaviors. Few PVT studies could be referred in the literature to meet such high temperature and pressure conditions. Furthermore, it is questionable regarding the applicability of existing condensate production techniques to such a high temperature and pressure reservoir. This study first characterized the phase behavior via PVT experiments and EOS tuning. The operating conditions were then optimized through reservoir numerical simulation. Results showed that: (1) the critical condensate temperature and pressure of Bozi 3 condensate gas were 326.24 °C and 43.83 MPa, respectively; (2) four gases (methane, recycled dry gas, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen) were analyzed, and methane was identified as the optimal injection gas; (3) gas injection started when the production began to fall and achieved higher recovery than gas injection started when the pressure fell below the dew-point pressure; (4) simultaneous injection of methane at both the upper and lower parts of the reservoir can effectively produce condensate oil over the entire block. This scheme achieved 8690.43 m3 more oil production and 2.75% higher recovery factor in comparison with depletion production.

We discuss an innovative new high-performance apparatus for performing low-field Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) relaxation times and diffusion measurements on fluids at very high pressures and high temperatures. The apparatus sensor design and electronics specifications allow for dual deployment either in a fluid sampling well logging tool or in a laboratory. The sensor and electronics were designed to function in both environments. This paper discusses the use of the apparatus in a laboratory environment. The operating temperature and pressure limits, and the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the new system exceed by a very wide margin what is currently possible. This major breakthrough was made possible by a revolutionary new sensor design that breaks many of the rules of conventional high pressure NMR sensor design. A metallic sample holder capable of operating at high pressures and temperatures is provided to contain the fluid under study. The sample holder has been successfully tested for operation up to 36 Kpsi. A solenoid coil wound on a slotted titanium frame sits inside the metallic sample holder and serves as an antenna to transmit RF pulses and receive NMR signals. The metal sample holder is sandwiched between a pair of gradient coils which provide a linear field gradient for pulsed field gradient diffusion measurements. The assembly sits in the bore of a low-gradient permanent magnet. The system can operate over a wide frequency range without the need for tuning the antenna to the Larmor frequency. The SNR measured on a water sample at room temperature is more than 15 times greater than that of the commercial low-field system in our laboratory. Thus, the new system provides for data acquisition more than 200 times faster than was previously possible. Laboratory NMR measurements of relaxations times and diffusion coefficients performed at pressures up to 25 Kpsi and at temperatures up to 175 °C with crude oils enlivened with dissolved hydrocarbon gases (referred to as "live oils") are shown. This is the first time low-field NMR measurements have been performed at such high temperatures and pressures on live crude oil samples. We discuss the details of the apparatus design, tuning, calibration, and operation. NMR data acquired at multiple temperatures and pressures on a live oil sample are discussed.

We present here the summary of the results of our studies using the APS synchrotron beamline IDB Sector 16 (HPCAT). Optical calibration of pressure sensors for high pressures and temperatures: The high-pressure ruby scale for static measurements is well established to at least 100 GPa (about 5% accuracy), however common use of this and other pressure scales at high temperature is clearly based upon unconfirmed assumptions. Namely that high temperature does not affect observed room temperature pressure derivatives. The establishment of a rigorous pressure scale along with the identification of appropriate pressure gauges (i.e. stable in the high P-T environment and easy to use) is important for securing the absolute accuracy of fundamental experimental science where results guide the development of our understanding of planetary sciences, geophysics, chemistry at extreme conditions, etc. X-ray diffraction in formic acid under high pressure: Formic acid (HCOOH) is common in the solar system; it is a potential component of the Galilean satellites. Despite this, formic acid has not been well-studied at high temperatures and pressures. A phase diagram of formic acid at planetary interior pressures and temperatures will add to the understanding of planetary formation and the potential for life on Europa. Formic acid (unlike most simple organic acids) forms low-temperature crystal structures characterized by infinite hydrogen-bonded chains of molecules. The behavior of these hydrogen bonds at high pressure is of great interest. Our current research fills this need.

Flow behaviors of a large spout-fluid bed at high pressure and temperature by 3D simulation with kinetic theory of granular flow

The U.S. Department of Energy is leading the development of alternative energy sources that will ensure the long-term energy independence of our nation. One key renewable resource being advanced is geothermal energy which offers an environmentally benign, reliable source of energy for the nation. To utilize this resource, water will be introduced into wells 3 to 10 km deep to create a geothermal reservoir. This approach is known as an Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS). The high temperatures and pressures at these depths have become a limiting factor in the development of this energy source. For example, reliable zonal isolation for high-temperature applications at high differential pressures is needed to conduct mini-fracs and other stress state diagnostics. Zonal isolation is essential for many EGS reservoir development activities. To date, the capability has not been sufficiently demonstrated to isolate sections of the wellbore to: 1) enable stimulation; and 2) seal off unwanted flow regions in unknown EGS completion schemes and high-temperature (>200°C) environments. In addition, packers and other zonal isolation tools are required to eliminate fluid loss, to help identify and mitigate short circuiting of flow from injectors to producers, and to target individual fractures or fracture networks for testing and validating reservoir models. General-purpose open-hole packers do not exist for geothermal environments, with the primary barrier being the poor stability of elastomeric seals at high temperature above 175°C. Experimental packer systems have been developed for geothermal environments but they currently only operate at low pressure, they are not retrievable, and they are not commercially available. The development of the high-temperature, high-pressure (HTHP) zonal isolation device would provide the geothermal community with the capability to conduct mini-fracs, eliminate fluid loss, to help identify and mitigate short circuiting of flow from injectors to producers, and to target individual fractures or fracture networks for testing and validating reservoir models. The goal of this program, therefore, was to develop and demonstrate reliable high-temperature high-pressure zonal isolation devices that are compatible with the high-temperature downhole environment anticipated for Enhanced Geothermal Systems. Over the course of this 3 year program, CTD designed and demonstrated a high temperature high pressure zonal isolation device. CTD has utilized its expertise in high-temperature materials, shape memory composites and foams, and deployment mechanisms for spacecraft and oil tools to develop a new class of HTHP zonal isolation devices for use in EGS. Specifically, the objective was to demonstrate the ability to isolate sections of an EGS wellbore to: 1) enable stimulation; and 2) seal off unwanted flow regions in unknown EGS completion schemes and high-temperature (>200°C) environments at temperatures upwards of 300°C. A concept for a high-temperature, high-pressure zonal isolation device was designed for use in creating circulation paths in environments where temperatures are in excess of 300°C and differential pressures of up to 10,000 psi are required to stimulate solid granite. This new zonal isolation device distributes the high-pressure differential through a significant length of high temperature, shape memory polymer composite material. The development of differential pressure is initiated by a thermally triggered actuation of a ‘structural seal’ that fills the cross section of the bore with the shape memory material. After this preliminary seal is made, differential pressure begins to build through the material as the seal forces the flow to pass through pores in the shape memory material. The shape memory material is compressed into place to react the force of the internal

Qiongdongnan Basin has a tectonic geological background of high temperature and high pressure in a deep reservoir setting, with mantle‐derived CO2. A water‐rock reaction device was used under high temperature and high pressure conditions, in conjunction with scanning electron microscope (SEM) observations, to carry out an experimental study of the diagenetic reaction between sandstone at depth and CO2‐rich fluid, which is of great significance for revealing the dissolution of deep clastic rock reservoirs and the developmental mechanism of secondary pores, promoting deep oil and gas exploration.In this study, the experimental scheme of the water‐rock reaction system was designed according to the parameters of the diagenetic background of the deep sandstone reservoir in the Qiongdongnan Basin. Three groups of single mineral samples were prepared in this experiment, including K‐feldspar samples, albite samples and calcite samples. Using CO2 as a reaction solution, a series of diagenetic reaction simulation experiments were carried out in a semi‐closed high temperature and high pressure simulation system. A field emission scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to observe the microscopic appearance of the mineral samples after the water‐rock reaction, the characteristics of dissolution under high temperature and high pressure, as well as the development of secondary pores.The experimental results showed that the CO2‐rich fluid has an obvious dissolution effect on K‐feldspar, albite and calcite under high temperature and high pressure. For the three minerals, the main temperature and pressure window for dissolution ranged from 150°C to 300°C and 45 MPa to 60 MPa. Scanning electron microscope observations revealed that the dissolution effect of K‐feldspar is most obvious under conditions of 150°C and 45 MPa, in contrast to conditions of 200°C and 50 MPa for albite and calcite. Through the comparative analysis of experimental conditions and procedures, a coupling effect occurred between the temperature and pressure change and the dissolution strength of K‐feldspar, albite and calcite. Under high temperature and high pressure, pressure changed the solubility of CO2, furthermore, the dissolution effect and strength of the sandstone components were also affected. The experiment revealed that high temperature and high pressure conditions with CO2‐rich fluid has a significant dissolution effect on aluminosilicate minerals and is conducive to the formation of secondary pores and effective reservoirs. Going forward with the above understanding has important implications for the promotion of deep oil and gas exploration.

Phase equilibria, chemical reactions, equations of state and elasticity investigated at high P-T in candidate materials for the mantle and the core provide an experimental basis for modelling the structure, dynamics and evolution of the Earth's deep interior. During the past three decades, diamond-anvil cells have been developed for experimental simulation of the pressure conditions of the entire Earth in the laboratory. Simultaneous high temperatures have been generated with various heating techniques. Physical and chemical properties of materials have been determined in situ at high P-T with microsampling techniques. Further improvements in accuracy and versatility of these measurements are essential for resolving key geophysical problems. Some recent developments in our laboratory are summarized, and assessments of the present status and immediate future of the field are offered.