Establishing a Chronology for Roman and Post-Roman Stanwick, Northamptonshire

Language, Social identity and Religion are three major concerns of cultural studies. Language in literary texts plays a major role in constructing meaning and reflecting the author`s intention. Likewise religion as a cultural politics is a dominant factor in shaping mind as well in affecting the framework of literary text. Religion is one of the emerging issues in the modern era and forms the backbone of most literary works. Religion as a theme is seen to influence the operation of those who believe in it. It forms the functional framework that predetermines ones actions and behavior. Furthermore, social identity decides on the status of the social class and their material life situation. Social identity relates to how we identify ourselves in relation to others according to what we have in common. All these issues are interrelated since they all cooperate and construct a social and cultural materiality. James Joyce could be placed among the most dominant cultural authors whose concern is the material life, social class, social identity and cultural crisis. As an outstanding author, Joyce is well known for his typical depiction, musical decoration as well as his sticking to proper cultural and social materials and issues such as religious matters. His major short story collection, Dubliners, revolves around the lifestyle of the Irish middle-class in Dublin around the late 1800s and early 1900s. This collection is decorated with violated norms and ritualistic behavior that are part of social constructs. Addressing social, religious and cultural issues, cultural materialists believe that “literature can serve as an agent of change”, since a culture`s hegemony is unstable. Raymond Williams views culture as a “productive process” that is, part of the means of production, and cultural materialism often identifies what he called “residual”, “emergent” and “oppositional” cultural elements. Seemingly, James Joyce`s Dubliners pertains to the notion of language, social identity and religion as cultural practices within the framework of cultural materialism. This study aims to clarify how James Joyce`s Dubliners reflects the notions of language, social identity and religion as cultural practices and how they construct social and cultural products within the framework of cultural materialism to show how James Joyce criticizes Irish culture at the beginning of the Twentieth century.

Language, Social identity and Religion are three major concerns of cultural studies. Language in literary texts plays a major role in constructing meaning and reflecting the author`s intention. Likewise religion as a cultural politics is a dominant factor in shaping mind as well in affecting the framework of literary text. Religion is one of the emerging issues in the modern era and forms the backbone of most literary works. Religion as a theme is seen to influence the operation of those who believe in it. It forms the functional framework that predetermines ones actions and behavior. Furthermore, social identity decides on the status of the social class and their material life situation. Social identity relates to how we identify ourselves in relation to others according to what we have in common. All these issues are interrelated since they all cooperate and construct a social and cultural materiality. James Joyce could be placed among the most dominant cultural authors whose concern is the material life, social class, social identity and cultural crisis. As an outstanding author, Joyce is well known for his typical depiction, musical decoration as well as his sticking to proper cultural and social materials and issues such as religious matters. His major short story collection, Dubliners, revolves around the lifestyle of the Irish middle-class in Dublin around the late 1800s and early 1900s. This collection is decorated with violated norms and ritualistic behavior that are part of social constructs. Addressing social, religious and cultural issues, cultural materialists believe that “literature can serve as an agent of change”, since a culture`s hegemony is unstable. Raymond Williams views culture as a “productive process” that is, part of the means of production, and cultural materialism often identifies what he called “residual”, “emergent” and “oppositional” cultural elements. Seemingly, James Joyce`s Dubliners pertains to the notion of language, social identity and religion as cultural practices within the framework of cultural materialism. This study aims to clarify how James Joyce`s Dubliners reflects the notions of language, social identity and religion as cultural practices and how they construct social and cultural products within the framework of cultural materialism to show how James Joyce criticizes Irish culture at the beginning of the Twentieth century.

Language, Social identity and Religion are three major concerns of cultural studies. Language in literary texts plays a major role in constructing meaning and reflecting the author,s intention. Likewise religion as a cultural politics is a dominant factor in shaping mind as well in affecting the framework of literary text. Religion is one of the emerging issues in the modern era and forms the backbone of most literary works. Religion as a theme is seen to influence the operation of those who believe in it. It forms the functional framework that predetermines ones actions and behavior. Furthermore, social identity decides on the status of the social class and their material life situation. Social identity relates to how we identify ourselves in relation to others according to what we have in common. All these issues are interrelated since they all cooperate and construct a social and cultural materiality. James Joyce could be placed among the most dominant cultural authors whose concern is the material life, social class, social identity and cultural crisis. As an outstanding author, Joyce is well known for his typical depiction, musical decoration as well as his sticking to proper cultural and social materials and issues such as religious matters. His major short story collection, Dubliners, revolves around the lifestyle of the Irish middle-class in Dublin around the late 1800s and early 1900s. This collection is decorated with violated norms and ritualistic behavior that are part of social constructs. Addressing social, religious and cultural issues, cultural materialists believe that “literature can serve as an agent of change”, since a culture’s hegemony is unstable. Raymond Williams views culture as a “productive process” that is, part of the means of production, and cultural materialism often identifies what he called “residual”, “emergent” and “oppositional” cultural elements. Seemingly, James Joyce’s Dubliners pertains to the notion of language, social identity and religion as cultural practices within the framework of cultural materialism. This study aims to clarify how James Joyce’s Dubliners reflects the notions of language, social identity and religion as cultural practices and how they construct social and cultural products within the framework of cultural materialism to show how James Joyce criticizes Irish culture at the beginning of the Twentieth century.

Between the Neolithic and the Late Bronze Age (LBA) a long lasting tradition, with temporary interruptions, of lake-dwelling occupation is well recorded in the northern Circum-Alpine region (Switzerland, southern Germany, eastern France; nCA). Traditional interpretations for the intermittent or permanent decline of this tradition have focussed on the role of climatic change influencing lake water levels, and thereby directly affecting the settlers through inundation of settlements and agricultural land. Such monocausalistic explanations would result in the movement of settlements to higher or lower altitudes depending on the prevailing contemporary lake-level. Such factors may have influenced the temporary abandonment of the lakeshore, e.g. during the Middle Bronze Age. The final decline of the lake-dwelling tradition at the end of the LBA and beginning of the early Iron Age (eIA), around 800 BC, breaks this pattern, suggesting other cultural factors may be involved. The material culture record from across central Europe broadly suggests that trade and communication routes linking northern and southern Europe were changing during this period. Could these networks have influenced cultural changes in the nCA lake-dwelling communities, and contributed to the decline of the lake-dwelling tradition?
\n
\nA combination of robust theoretical background and thorough review of specific types of LBA and eIA material culture provides insights to communication routes flowing through the nCA, and changing social attitudes towards objects within the nCA between the two periods. Four theoretical principles were adopted and developed to provide a solid basis for interpretation:
\n1) Relational Theory: emphasising that the links between communities, objects, people, and social structures are mutually constructive. A proposed relational model suggests that the material culture and social expression of communities (and societies) is influenced by the involvement in exchange and communication relationships with other groups.
\n2) Biography of Objects: details how objects accumulate biographies throughout their use depending on the relationships in which they were used. The archaeological contexts in which objects are found also provide indications of their social value.
\n3) Cultural Memory: recognises that the interpretation of ancient remains may have formed significant guiding factors in the cultural landscape of past communities.
\n4) Object Translation: it is well accepted that objects do not have an inherent value, but that any value is socially ascribed. This ascription of value occurs as objects are ‘translated’ from one cultural setting to another.
\n
\nThe principle of Object Biographies can be applied to immovable material culture (i.e. settlements) in addition to traditional forms of material culture (objects). A proposed theoretical biography of northern Alpine lake-settlements links various social factors to the establishment and decline of settlements. For example, the role of cultural memory in the interpretation of ancient settlement remains visible in the landscape may be considered as one of the factors directing communities to found new settlements. The well documented remains from Ürschhausen-Horn suggest that some buildings were deliberately abandoned in a planned event rather than evacuated in a catastrophic flooding or fire. Social factors were of great significance to the rhythm of settlement construction. A comparative study of lake-settlements from the nCA and Baltic regions suggests that there is no apparent link between the two lake-dwelling traditions of these regions – this is also reflected in the distribution of objects.
\n
\nMany forms of material culture show that the nCA lake-dwellings, particularly around Lake Neuchâtel and the Zurich Bay, formed nodal points on the long-distance exchange network between northern Europe and the Mediterranean. Strong links to Frattesina (Italy), and around Mainz and Frankfurt are demonstrated, for example by ring jewellery and Pfahlbau beads. During the eIA the material culture used in the nCA is predominantly local in distribution, but a change of in the social valuation of objects social value is evident, with items predominantly deposited in burials.
\n
\nCombining the evidence of settlements, burial practices, and material culture use, it is clear that the nCA region was largely removed from long-distance inter-regional exchange network during the eIA, while, at the same time, burial practices became more pronounced in society. The loss of these trade connections may have reduced the materials and practices available to social elites to legitimize their position, which was replaced by increased focus on the burial practices and the role of hilltop settlements as visible social indicators. These changes to legitimization practices and social structures rendered the former lake-dwelling way of living no longer suitable to communities of the early Iron Age and beyond.
\n

In the late 1950s, Jacob Kaplan recognized the Wadi Rabah culture as a distinct cultural entity of the southern Levant, and suggested possible interconnections to the northern Levant, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. This volume examines Kaplan’s suggestion in detail and explores the cultural entities of northern Mesopotamia, the Levant and Egypt between ca. 5800 and 5200 cal BC, and the interactions between them. In this process, the 6th millennium BC witnessed a densely woven network of trade and cultural interactions that formed the first known transregional cultural entity. This faded in the following period as its component regions reverted to cultural individuality, and was not seen again in this intensity until the Bronze Age. This examination crosses over modern political boundaries and different academic traditions, research emphases and methodologies. Based on a firm chronological framework, developed for each region based on Bayesian modeling of available radiocarbon dates, the main traits in settlement patterns, material culture, funerary rites, art, and subsistence strategies are outlined in order to analyze previously unnoticed parallels in material culture and cultural practice between the four regions systematically. Evidence of imported raw materials or finished goods is reviewed in detail, all of these collected links and interactions are discussed in a wider geographic context. Mechanisms that could underlie this interactions are examined and possible transregional dynamics are proposed. It is suggested that the center of the culture that influenced the region lays in the northern Levant and northern Mesopotamia.

Southend, one of five medieval settlements in Burton Dassett parish, Warwickshire, was the site of a market promoted by the manorial lord Bartholomew de Sudeley, with a charter being obtained in 1267. The settlement prospered, becoming known as Chipping Dassett, and approached urban status, but then declined throughout the 15th century. It was subjected to depopulation in 1497. The site survived as earthworks in pasture until construction of the M40 motorway necessitated the archaeological programme described here. The only building to survive was the 13th-century chapel of St James, reduced, along with an adjacent post-medieval priest's house, to a cow-shed. Open area excavations at Southend investigated parts of ten medieval properties. There was some prehistoric and Romano-British activity, with evidence for woodland regeneration and subsequent clearance in the post-Roman period, despite the Feldon area being one often considered to have little in the way of tree-cover since the Roman period. The main period of occupation lasted from the mid-13th century to the late 15th century, reflecting the rise and decline of Chipping Dassett. Over 20 complete plans of houses and outbuildings were recorded, exhibiting a range of building techniques. The remains were well preserved, the surviving stratigraphy protected by demolition rubble. In most houses successive building phases were revealed and many internal features survived. A door jamb inscribed with the name of a tenant family 'Gormand' suggests a degree of functional literacy. One of the properties was recognised as a smithy during the excavation and a pioneering sampling and analysis of the ironworking evidence was carried out. The site was also sampled extensively for charred plant remains and, unusually for Warwickshire with its slightly acid soils, a large assemblage of animal bone was collected. Work on these provides direct evidence of medieval agricultural practice, to be compared with the local historical evidence. The large quantities of finds recovered, probably the largest assemblage from a medieval rural settlement in the West Midlands, enable the reconstruction of the material culture of a late medieval Warwickshire Feldon village. Although the excavated area lay away from the original settlement nucleus, the investigation revealed the mechanics of 13th-century market development with two separate stages of planned development apparent. After the mid-14th century the tenements show a complex pattern of decline leading up to the depopulation of 1497. The different properties followed varying development paths and the excavations chart a process of general community decline against a background of increasing individual prosperity. The evidence of material culture and settlement morphology, taken together, are relevant to the discussion about differentiation and similarities between urban and rural settlement. The medieval pottery has been crucial to the development of the Warwickshire type series. Identification of the pottery sources provides evidence for trade connections between the settlement and the wider market network, with the quantities of material from the Chilvers Coton kilns suggesting that manorial connections with North Warwickshire, where the Sudeley family also held land, were significant. The summary narrative and thematic discussions (focused upon material culture, spatial organisation, buildings and economy) in this volume are supplemented by detailed stratigraphic description and specialist reports available online through the Archaeology Data Service.

Archaeology is the study of the human past through its material remains. This chapter provides an introduction to specialist scientific aspects of archaeological inquiry like metallurgical, ceramic or petrological analyses, scientific dating methods, palaeobotany, or the study of animal or human bone. It provides a guide, in rough chronological order, to the ways in which archaeologists have approached the past. The chapter focuses on the present writer's research, the immediately post-Roman period of the middle ages. The concept of an archaeological 'culture', 'certain types of remains- pots, implements, ornaments, burial rites, house forms-constantly recurring together', emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. The movement away from New Archaeology produced attempts to bring about a rapprochement between the disciplines.Keywords: archaeology; material culture; post-Roman period

Reviewed by: What the Victorians Made of Romanticism: Material Artifacts, Cultural Practices, and Reception History by Tom Mole Paul Westover (bio) Tom Mole. What the Victorians Made of Romanticism: Material Artifacts, Cultural Practices, and Reception History. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017. Pp. xii + 317. $45. Prominent theorists of reading, reception, memory, and critical practice have argued that literary scholarship too often privileges contexts of origin (that is, histories of composition, publication, and initial reading). Several have called for rigorous approaches that account for literature’s movement across time and its downstream ability to engage new readers and even non-readers. Tom Mole has taken up the challenge; in resistance to what he calls “punctual historicism”—something like the “box” historicism Rita Felski has criticized—Mole’s What the Victorians Made of Romanticism extends the catalogue of recent studies that take seriously the mobility of Romantic writing across generations. Other important studies in this vein include [End Page 135] Heather Jackson’s Those Who Write for Immortality (2015), Devoney Looser’s The Making of Jane Austen (2017), Ann Rigney’s The Afterlives of Walter Scott (2012), and Catherine Robson’s Heart Beats: Everyday Life and the Memorized Poem (2012)—books quite different from one another yet sharing a strong trans-temporal orientation that illuminates how literature “resonates,” to borrow a term from Wai Chee Dimock. These books may not tell us what specific texts mean in the way of interpretive criticism, but they do pursue the question of what literature as a whole means, or has meant, to people. At the same time, by focusing on the paths by which literature has made itself part of people’s lives, these studies combat pure methodological textualism, insisting that “literature” in the broad sense operates far beyond the page. It isn’t that questions of long-term reception are new to scholarship, but rather that fresh attention to media ecology, book history, material culture, and cultural practices opens new ways to think about them. What the Victorians Made of Romanticism aims to expand the literary field to include the whole “web of reception,” which for Mole includes human actors—readers, adapters, repurposers—as well as all sorts of books (not just early editions), multiple media channels, and a world of literary things. We have long known that works of literature and authors’ reputations do not “survive” without help, but Mole’s research highlights some of the forms that help has taken at particular historical junctures. On some level, Mole’s work might be understood as the latest major book in the mode of “(Insert Author) and the Victorians” (e.g., Andrew Elfenbein on Byron [1995], Stephen Gill on Wordsworth [1998]) to the extent that it traces the late-nineteenth-century reception histories of Scott, Byron, Shelley, Hemans, and Wordsworth. Mole asks how these writers became newly relevant for certain kinds of Victorian readers even as they seemed in danger of being forgotten. However, in its focus on (re)mediation, this study is more accurately thought of as a sequel to Mole’s earlier books on Byron, book history, and celebrity. As Mole clarifies from the outset, “I’m mainly interested in what the Victorians made of Romanticism rather than what they wrote about it” (3). Mole’s five section titles offer a sense of the book’s scope: “The Web of Reception,” “Illustrations,” “Sermons,” “Statues,” “Anthologies.” Each section contains three chapters, evocative case studies that spar entertainingly with critical conversations in related fields. The range of materials determines the range of methods: bibliography, influence history, media theory, tourist history, “distant reading,” and so forth, all blending to match the mix of visual, material, and textual artifacts. While a table of contents listing fifteen chapters plus introduction and coda might give some readers pause, Mole’s book does not in fact over-whelm [End Page 136] with its scale. The average chapter length, excluding the shorter introduction and coda, is under fourteen pages, and the longest chapter comes in at nineteen. Lively, economical divisions offer packages of thought for a single sitting, though significant arguments cross chapters. Generally, Mole launches each section by describing a key historical shift and offering an overarching claim concerning...

The study of material culture centers upon objects, their properties, and the materials that they are made of, and the ways in which these material facets are central to an understanding of culture and social relations. It challenges the historical division between the natural sciences as being the place for the study of the material world and the social sciences as being where society and social relations can be understood. Instead, culture and society are seen as being created and reproduced by the ways in which people make, design, and interact with objects. It also challenges the assumption, perpetuated by disciplinary divisions and also philosophical trajectories, that the object and subject are separate, wherein the latter is assumed to be immaterial, and the former is assumed to be inert and passive. In seeing the material properties of things as central to the meanings an object might have, much work within material culture studies is critical of the idea that objects merely symbolize or represent aspects of a pre-existing culture or identity. A key area of contestation in the literature on material culture is the question of agency and the ways in which objects can produce particular effects or allow and permit certain behaviors or cultural practices. This is developed through the concept of objectification, which is central to many studies of material culture—albeit differently conceived dependent upon the disciplinary and theoretical stance taken—which explores the intertwined, and often dialectic, relationships between people and things. Those who study material culture are situated in a wide range of disciplines such as archaeology, anthropology, geography, history, design, and sociology. Although material culture studies cross many disciplines, there are still theories, methods, and perspectives that are firmly located within particular disciplines. Understandings of material culture have been central to anthropology since its inception; during the late 19th and early 20th century anthropologists primarily collected material culture (Kroeber, Boas) that was displayed in museums in Europe and North America. It was only with the start of ethnographic fieldwork that the study of the material culture became less important. This bibliography of material culture will not focus primarily upon the study of ethnographic museums (with the exception of the section on Display) but more on the so-called new material culture studies that have developed since the 1980s and that are characterized by combining ethnographic fieldwork and anthropological debate. Within this field, empirical research explores specific genres of material culture, such as food or clothing, and empirical and theoretical work extends this to consider categories of objects, such as gifts and commodities, as situated within wider systems of exchange. There is also a concern with how objects “move” between domains and different value systems as the practices and meanings surrounding physically changing objects themselves change.

Este artigo tem como propósito apresentar parte da pesquisa de campo sobre o processo de afirmação étnica dos Tapuia-Kariri de São Benedito ─ comunidade coletiva indígena do estado do Ceará. A análise resulta de uma etnografia entre os Tapuias e das observações realizadas junto a outras comunidade indígenas do Ceará, na condição de docente do magistério indígena da Secretária de Educação do Estado do Ceará (SEDUC). Os Tapuias-Kariris constituem o grupo mais recente a autoafirmar-se como indígena. No processo de autoafirmação e reconhecimento, a primeira dificuldade que o grupo enfrenta é a negação social em reconhecê-los enquanto indígenas. Diante dessa rejeição, o grupo está constantemente negociando e afirmando sua identidade. Esse processo é realizado por meio da reelaboração das imagens, da cultura material e das práticas culturais, elementos coletivos que passam a ser concebidos pelo prisma de pertença étnica. A cultura material e o conjunto de práticas e de saberes a ela incorporada ocupam um lugar central no cotidiano desses grupos indígenas. Advindos de conhecimentos ancestrais, os objetos, assim como as danças, as músicas e os rituais, narram de modo particular a vida e a concepção cosmológica. Analisar o processo de afirmação, suas dificuldades intrínsecas, bem como o papel das manifestações culturais e das imagens, é o objetivo deste trabalho.

The article explores how collective memory shapes a unique cultural environment within the modern Ukrainian state. National identity is presented as a key condition for the survival of the Ukrainian people and the preservation of their cultural and historical heritage. One of the study's central themes is the Orthodox tradition, which has religious and cultural potential that extends beyond a purely religious framework. The historical development of Orthodox influence is evident in local educational practices, political life, and Ukrainians' self-determination across different periods. The article also examines the impact of Catholic dominance on the collective memory and self-consciousness of the local population during engagements with the Western world. It highlights the responses of Orthodox communities, particularly their efforts to safeguard spiritual traditions in reaction to Catholic expansion in the region. Key concepts such as "memory space," "cultural memory," and "reference points" are analyzed to explain the mechanisms through which traditional ways of life are preserved via texts, rituals, holidays, and other cultural practices. Particular emphasis is placed on the ethno-mental triangle of "paganism - Byzantine Christianity - religious syncretism in the form of Ukrainian Orthodoxy" and the triad "empire - Soviet period - independence," which is proposed as a framework for interpreting Ukraine's extended cultural and historical periods. The article also highlights the unique characteristics of restoring religious structures in the post-Soviet era and examines their connections to Eastern European religious and cultural traditions. In spiritual culture, sacred texts are emphasized, while in material culture, differences in architectural styles reflecting various cultural traditions are analyzed. These buildings showcase aesthetic preferences and the ideological and value orientations of their respective eras. Finally, the article emphasizes the cultural potential of national memory in shaping new ideological concepts. This is exemplified by the celebration of Kyiv's 1500th anniversary in 1982 and the contemporary Ukrainian state's use of Cossack heritage, which remains highly relevant in addressing modern challenges.

Language, Social identity and Religion are three major concerns of cultural studies. Language in literary texts plays a major role in constructing meaning and reflecting the author`s intention. Likewise religion as a cultural politics is a dominant factor in shaping mind as well in affecting the framework of literary text. Religion is one of the emerging issues in the modern era and forms the backbone of most literary works. Religion as a theme is seen to influence the operation of those who believe in it. It forms the functional framework that predetermines ones actions and behavior. Furthermore, social identity decides on the status of the social class and their material life situation. Social identity relates to how we identify ourselves in relation to others according to what we have in common. All these issues are interrelated since they all cooperate and construct a social and cultural materiality. Proper cultural and social materials and issues such as religious matters. His major short story collection, <i>Dubliners</i>, revolves around the lifestyle of the Irish middle-class in Dublin around the late 1800s and early 1900s. This collection is decorated with violated norms and ritualistic behavior that are part of social constructs. Addressing social, religious and cultural issues, cultural This study aims to clarify how James Joyce`s <i>Dubliners</i> reflects the notions of language, social identity and religion as cultural practices and how they construct social and cultural products within the framework of cultural materialism to show how James Joyce criticizes Irish culture at the beginning of the Twentieth century.

Автор вводит понятие «культурно-коммуникативное пространство народной медицины» на материале культуры мордовского этноса. Структура культурно-коммуникативного пространства включает народные знания и умения, коммуникативные навыки (вербальные и невербальные), ряд культурных символов и кодов, способствующих грамотной передаче и интерпретации информации в области сохранения жизни и здоровья представителей этнического сообщества. Представлено влияние этнопсихолингвистических особенностей этноса на транслирование, восприятие и сохранение информации в изучаемой сфере. Трансляция знаний происходит через компоненты материальной и духовной культуры, обладающие семиотической нагрузкой в соответствии с мировоззрениями мордвы. Материальная культура (жилище, пища, домашняя утварь и одежда) рассматривается как аналоговая коммуникация. Представлены взаимопересечения народной медицины и семиотического пространства мордовского жилища, наполненного различной атрибутикой, в том числе и невербальной. Духовная культура мордовского народа рассматривается как система знаний и мировоззренческих идей, отражающих менталитет, культуру и языковую специфику, воздействует на восприятие и интерпретацию культурных кодов этномедицины. К сфере духовной культуры автор относит также этномедицинскую терминологическую базу и фольклорные тексты (в данном случае — мордовские народные сказки и заговоры). Автор делает вывод, что в культурно-коммуникативном пространстве народной медицины мордвы разграничение роли материальной и духовной культуры затруднено ввиду неразрывной связи смыслового значения предметов первой в контексте второй. В статье изучены и проанализированы: 1) трансформации культурно-коммуникативного пространства народной медицины мордвы, произошедшие под влиянием межкультурной коммуникации (взаимодействие с соседними этносами); 2) популяризация народной медицины в средствах массовой информации; 3) список специальной литературы, связанной с теоретическими проблемами этномедицины; 4) цифровые технологии (всемирная информационная сеть и т. д.) как информационный канал для усвоения и популяризации культурологических знаний. В заключение автор делает вывод, что современные источники информации и качественное изменение компонентов материальной и духовной культуры в сторону унификации в соответствии с современными социально-экономическими тенденциями приводят к трансформации культурно-коммуникативного пространства народной медицины.

An Interview with Paula Garrett-Rucks, Georgia State University

The Celts are a collection of tribes and/or populations that inhabited much of Central Europe during the Iron Age and are still something of an enigma. The relationship among the spread of their material culture, the application of Celtic ethnicity, movements among the diverse populations possessing Iron Age Hallstatt and La Tene artefacts throughout Central Europe believed to have been spread by Celtic people, and/or spoken languages identified as Celtic have long been questioned by researchers. However, previous research has primarily focused only on chronological and typological descriptions and documentation of diachronic change. Diverse populations throughout Europe have been intrinsically linked based on perceived similarities in burial practice, art styles and material culture. Subsequently, these associations have resulted in the creation of the so-called La Tene=Celtic paradigm. Under this paradigm, the presence of La Tene artefacts designate a population as Celtic, which is still prevalent in the field of Celtic studies regardless of documented regional differences. The underlying biological diversity among presumed Celtic populations and processes driving the observed variation in artefacts, art styles and burial practices throughout the core and expansion regions (i.e., where the Hallstatt and La Tene material cultures initially developed versus those into which they subsequently spread during the 4th and 3rd centuries BC) are not well understood. The present study helps fill the void in the current understanding of underlying biological diversity among these populations in several ways. First, 36 morphological traits in 586 dentitions from 11 regional samples, from Britain and Europe, were collected using the Arizona State University Dental Anthropological System (ASUDAS). The above samples represent the core and expansion regions, along with a comparative European Iron Age sample outside the known range of Celtic expansion. Frequencies of occurrence for each dental and osseous nonmetric trait were recorded by sample. Second, the suite of traits was compared among samples using principal components analysis, (PCA) and the mean measure of divergence (MMD) distance statistic. Multidimensional scaling was subsequently employed on the symmetric MMD matrix to illustrate graphically inter-sample relationships. Phenetic patterns of overall biological similarity and dissimilarity among individuals and populations based on morphological traits were determined. MMD distances were then compared with geographic distances among samples, under the assumption that genetic affinity is inverse to spatial distance. The biological distance estimates suggest the following. First, populations in the expansion regions exhibit less biological diversity than those within the core. Specifically, two samples within these regions are biologically indistinguishable, the remaining two are biologically distinct, and all samples within the core are phenetically diverse. Thus, populations in the expansion regions are genetically distinct from those in the core and were likely acculturated, not genetically influenced by these groups. Limited intra-and-extra regional gene flow and genetic isolation explain the population structure within the above regions. Second, overall phenetic heterogeneity, biological diversity, and population discontinuity are indicated, as the majority of the samples within both regions are biologically distinct from one another. This diversity may also reflect genetic and linguistic boundaries among the samples. Third, waves of migration from the core during the 4th and 3rd centuries BC were not likely responsible for diachronic changes in material culture within the expansion regions. Fourth, the separation of populations and material culture into the core and expansion regions, and the application of Celtic ethnicity to diverse populations possessing artefacts and a spoken language(s) identified as Celtic may be a nominal association, i.e., in name only. Simply put, the comparative results suggest that these groups represent biologically distinct populations. These findings were compared with published archaeological, linguistic, genetic and bioarchaeological information to test for concordance between dental and other evidence. The present study does not support findings of previous studies and suggests there is more genetic diversity than previously assumed under the La Tene=Celtic paradigm. Thus, a combination of genetic isolation by distance, limited intra-and-extra-regional gene flow, trade, cultural diffusion and/or assimilation is likely responsible for the observed art style, burial practice, archaeological, genetic and linguistic diversity among populations possessing Hallstatt and La Tene artefacts and/or language(s). These diverse populations may have lost their cultural autonomy after being subsumed into a greater Celtic identity. Thus, the contemporary concept of Celts is likely a modern construct that has hindered understanding of the extent of regional diversity and cultural autonomy among diverse populations throughout Iron Age Europe.