Equidad y educación superior en América Latina: el papel de las carreras terciarias y universitarias

Recent Trends in Income Inequality in Latin America Leonardo Gasparini (bio), Guillermo Cruces (bio), and Leopoldo Tornarolli (bio) Any assessment of the Latin American economies would be incomplete without reference to their high levels of socioeconomic inequalities. All countries in the region are characterized by large disparities of income and consumption levels, access to education, land, and basic services, and other socioeconomic variables. Inequality is a distinctive, pervasive characteristic of the region. This document presents information updated through the mid-2000s and analyzes patterns and trends of income inequality in Latin America. The measurement and analysis of inequality have long been a major topic of study for economics and other social sciences in the region. However, the scarcity of reliable and consistent microeconomic data has always been an obstacle against comprehensive assessments. Most studies are based on limited sources or are constrained to cover a single country. The United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), the World Bank, and the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) have all made efforts to assemble large databases of national household surveys to support wider [End Page 147] assessments of inequality, poverty, and other socioeconomic variables. This study is mostly based on data from the Socioeconomic Database for Latin America and the Caribbean (SEDLAC), a project developed jointly by the Center for Distributive, Labor, and Social Studies (CEDLAS) and the World Bank. This database contains information on more than 200 official household surveys in twenty-five Latin American and Caribbean countries. This paper uses data for the period from 1992 to 2006. We confirm that income inequality increased in the 1990s as documented in the literature, but we also find that inequality decreased in the 2000s, suggesting a turning point from the unequalizing changes of the previous two decades. While the recent fall in income inequality is significant and widespread, it does not seem to be based on strong fundamentals. The rest of this paper is organized as follows. The discussion opens with a description of the data sources and their limitations. The subsequent section represents the core of the paper, as it documents the main patterns of income inequality in Latin America, at both the country and regional levels. The paper then takes a look inside household income, discussing inequality patterns for the distribution of individual labor and nonlabor income. We also place the Latin American evidence in international perspective, using various data sources. The final section presents our concluding remarks. The Data The main source of data for this paper is the Socioeconomic Database for Latin America and the Caribbean (SEDLAC), developed jointly by CEDLAS at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata (Argentina) and the World Bank's Latin American and Caribbean Poverty and Gender Group. This database contains information on more than 200 official household surveys in twenty-five Latin American and Caribbean countries: the seventeen countries in continental Latin America (namely, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela) plus eight countries in the Caribbean (the Dominican Republic and seven non-Hispanic Caribbean countries). The sample represents 97 percent of the total Latin American and Caribbean population, including 100 percent in continental Latin America and 55 percent in the Caribbean. The main missing country is Cuba, which does not disclosure household survey information. Our analysis starts in the early 1990s, [End Page 148] when most countries in Latin America consolidated their household survey programs, and ends in 2006. Table 1 lists the surveys used in this study, covering the eighteen Latin American countries in the CEDLAS database. Household surveys in most countries are nationally representative, with the exception of Argentina and Uruguay (before 2006), where surveys cover only the urban population. This nonetheless represents 88 percent and 92 percent of the total population in these countries, respectively. In these two cases, we use the urban figures as proxies for the national statistics.1 Most countries experienced changes in their household surveys in the 1990s and 2000s. In many cases the geographical coverage was broadened, monthly surveys were replaced by annual ones, and the questionnaires were improved. Although these changes are certainly welcome, they pose significant...

The general articulation of the issue and its relation to the important research and practical tasks is that democratic transformations in the society have actualized the issue of equality for women and men and need to address gender inequalities. As a result, they develop some new state institutions engaged in gender questions. In the complementary cooperation with public structures, they represent an institutional mechanism of providing public policy on gender equality and equal opportunities for women and men.The analysis of recent publications regarding the issues shows that in Ukraine problems with development of gender issues in public administration are of particular importance.Identification of parts of the general problem that have not been previously addressed. The processes of theoretical and empirical analysis of institutional mechanism of ensuring public policy of gender equality and equal opportunities for men and women, functions of social institutions involved in this process, level of interaction and consideration of public opinion of the country population remain practically neglected.The purpose of this article is to conduct a complex analysis of institutional mechanism of providing the public policy of gender equality and equal opportunities of for men and women in Ukraine for identification of urgent problems in the research area and development of relevant solutions.The key results and the background. The current state of legal support of public gender equality policy in Ukraine is analyzed. Based on official data frominternational organizations, the effectiveness of public policy on gender equality in Ukraine has been evaluated. As a result of the research conducted there were identified both positive and negative factors influencing the law, and the effectiveness of the institutional mechanism for ensuring gender equality policy in Ukraine.Conclusions and the prospects for further research.The content of institutional mechanism for ensuring public policy of gender equality and equal opportunities for men and women in Ukraine is a close combination of well-established rules defined by the legislation with exhaust practice of informal agreements. However, we should also note some positive results in the development and strengthening of the institutional mechanism for ensuring public policy of gender equality and equal opportunities in Ukraine.

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BackgroundAlthough G6PDd individuals are generally asymptomatic throughout their life, the clinical burden of this genetic condition includes a range of haematological conditions, including acute haemolytic anaemia (AHA), neonatal jaundice (NNJ) and chronic non-sphaerocytic anaemia (CNSA). In Latin America (LA), the huge knowledge gap regarding G6PDd is related to the scarce understanding of the burden of clinical manifestation underlying G6PDd carriage. The aim of this work was to study the clinical significance of G6PDd in LA and the Caribbean region through a systematic review.MethodsA systematic search of the published literature was undertaken in August 2013. Bibliographies of manuscripts were also searched and additional references were identified. Only original research was included. All study designs were included, as long as any clinical information was present. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they reported clinical information from populations living in LA or Caribbean countries or about migrants from these countries living in countries outside this continent.ResultsThe Medline search generated 487 papers, and the LILACS search identified 140 papers. After applying the inclusion criteria, 100 original papers with any clinical information on G6PDd in LA were retrieved. Additionally, 16 articles were included after reading the references from these papers. These 116 articles reported data from 18 LA and Caribbean countries. The major clinical manifestations reported from LA countries were those related to AHA, namely drug-induced haemolysis. Most of the published works regarding drug-induced haemolysis in LA referred to haemolytic crises in P. vivax malaria patients during the course of the treatment with primaquine (PQ). Favism, infection-induced haemolysis, NNJ and CNSA appear to play only a minor public health role in this continent.ConclusionHaemolysis in patients using PQ seems to be the major clinical manifestation of G6PDd in LA and contributes to the morbidity of P. vivax infection in this continent, although the low number of reported cases, which could be linked to under-reporting of complications. These results support the need for better strategies to diagnose and manage G6PDd in malaria field conditions. Additionally, Malaria Control Programmes in LA should not overlook this condition in their national guidelines.

This article reviews the social conditions in which General Studies are conducted within university education in the case of Mexico, which could be generalized to other Latin America countries where economic inequality rules. The purpose of this paper is to reason on the mistaken ideal of surfeiting wealth that arises as an artificial and even unnatural way for human beings but is encouraged by reference groups to which individuals link themselves and is promoted by society in general. Students admire the rich and want to reach their wealth levels. Although values of justice and equity begin to be known and exercised within the family, their study must be completed in classrooms, particularly at a university level. General Studies can contribute to an integral formation by promoting the development of a freer, more just and more critical society. To achieve this purpose we will analyze Aristotle's proposal of a truly rich middle class. This study concludes that although in Latin America we live in an unequal society, it is possible to contribute to the formation of worthy human beings who maintain an accurate economic and social ambition, not pleased with mediocrity, but longing to excel in humanity by means of their own forces.

The article examines Israel’s experience in the integration of women into military service as a key element of ensuring national defense capability. It is noted that the Israeli model of women’s integration is unique in view of its combination with the tough security challenges that have accompanied the existence of the state since its foundation. The legislative framework, organizational aspects and socio-cultural features that affect the participation of women in the armed forces are analyzed. The key role of gender mainstreaming in ensuring equal rights and opportunities for women in various units of the Israel Defense Forces is emphasized. Using the example of Israeli reforms, a comparison is made with the Ukrainian context, in which the integration of women into the military sphere is of particular relevance due to the long-term military conflict. It is found that despite significant progress in ensuring gender equality in the Israeli armed forces, the integration process faces organizational and social barriers. In particular, the uneven access of women to combat and leadership positions is noted due to entrenched stereotypes and restrictions that reflect deeper socio-cultural problems. Special attention is paid to the issues of legislative changes that contributed to the expansion of opportunities for women in the military sphere. Key regulatory acts are analyzed, in particular amendments to the Law on Military Service, which ensured equal access of women and men to positions in the armed forces. It is emphasized that the implementation of gender equality in Israel is based not only on legislative changes, but also on a comprehensive approach that takes into account social, cultural and economic factors. In the context of Ukrainian realities, the need to introduce reforms that will take into account the successful elements of the Israeli model is noted. A comparison of the number of military personnel and reservists of the two states is made, which allows us to highlight the specifics of their approaches to the formation of defense potential. It is noted that for Ukraine it is important not only to increase the number of personnel, but also to ensure high-quality training and equal opportunities for women in all aspects of military service. The analysis allows us to conclude that the Israeli experience is a valuable reference point for reforming the Armed Forces of Ukraine. The use of this experience will contribute not only to increasing defense capabilities, but also to consolidating the principles of gender equality as the basis for the development of society. It is emphasized that the success of reforms depends on their comprehensiveness, adaptation to the national context, and involvement of all resources of society in solving defense tasks.

How does the legally established gender quota in local self-government bodies affect the level of representation of women in power? How does the representation of women in power increase effective political participation? Previous studies were devoted to studying the consequences of gender quotas in the authorities and management, but the issue of the model of gender political participation remained neglected. The introduction of gender quotas as a mechanism for ensuring equal rights and opportunities for women in politics and the decision-making process increases women’s political participation and political leadership. The success or failure of planning and decision-making largely depends on the level of political participation. The issues of this work correspond to Goal 5 of Sustainable Development, which provides equal opportunities for women’s leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life. The paper analyzes the representation of women in the authorities and management in different regions of the world. The study’s main goal is to determine the relationship between the representation of women in rural local self-government bodies and the consequences of this representation. The data sources were the results of local elections, reports of government ministries and agencies, United Nations reports on gender equality and the empowerment of women, as well as surveys of women representatives of political power in three Indian states (Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra ) — state election data analyzed over the past three decades. The results of this study show that the level of female representation increases annually, although this is not entirely related to political participation. Women’s electoral participation indicates that despite growing women’s participation in local elections, the expression remains unchanged within the established gender quota of 33 to 50 percent. Addressing the gender imbalance in the political environment of three states in India is a result of the introduction and enforcement of gender quotas in politics. The results of this study have practical value for local self-government bodies when developing state gender policy.

The purpose of the chapter is to examine possibilities for reducing socioeconomic inequity by improving opportunities in education for low-income children and youth. Honduras is used as an example. Honduras is one of the poorest countries in Latin America, 51 % of the work force is unemployed or underemployed, and high levels of socioeconomic inequity are evident with 68 % of the population living in poverty. The challenges are associated with limited employment opportunities, low levels of productivity and education, and more people entering the labor force than employers can absorb. International research shows that improvements in the quality of education and a work force with higher levels of education can complement other reforms for improving incomes and reducing poverty. With international data suggesting that improvements in the education levels of a work force can help improve employment opportunities, Honduras established goals for increasing net enrollments in education. Net and gross enrollment rates may be similar in more developed countries, when students enroll at an appropriate age and education systems have efficient pass rates, but the two rates can be very different in developing countries. With national goals for net enrollment rates, governments and international organizations may focus on perceived problems with the coverage of education, rather than addressing issues with the efficiency, quality, and equity of education – which may result in more youth dropping out of school, as compared to young people who have lacked access, as in the case of Honduras. The case of Honduras shows how priorities can become very different when gross enrollment rates and other information on equity are used for planning priorities in education, rather than relying on improvements in net coverage to achieve goals in socioeconomic development.

Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean—but also, more broadly, across the Global South—are being subjected to pressures from Washington and Beijing to take sides in what is emerging as a Second Cold War. How should countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America react to this ? The purpose of this essay is to outline one response that has arisen to it in Latin America; namely, Active Non-Alignment (ANA). The essay first examines the concept of ANA. Then, it deals with the reaction elicited across the Global South to the war in Ukraine, in what many have referred to as a “new non-alignment”. Finally, the essay examines the case of India, seen by many as a leader of the Global South, and Africa. ANA provides a useful guide to action for the foreign policy of postcolonial states to navigate the stormy waters of a world order in transition.

Improving access to transport systems and mobility of people with disabilities is a necessary element of alleviating poverty in developing countries. A selected overview of the progress made toward achieving improved access is provided. It is based on an ongoing 3-year research program on access needs and approaches in a selection of developing countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. A generalized framework is suggested for describing the progress made across different countries. Many least developed countries are at the bottom of a continuum of activities in which issues of human rights and access to basic mobility are still paramount. Others, such as countries in Latin America, have made significant progress on access issues in major cities and are faced with challenges of expanding improvements to noncore areas and to less well-regulated modes. The framework is used to suggest some critical priorities for countries at various levels of development.

We investigate the heterogeneity across countries and time in the relationship between mother’s fertility and children’s educational attainment—the quantity-quality (Q-Q) trade-off—by using census data from 17 countries in Asia and Latin America, with data from each country spanning multiple census years. For each country-year, we estimate micro-level instrumental variables models predicting secondary school attainment using number of siblings of the child, instrumented by the sex composition of the first two births in the family. We then analyze correlates of Q-Q trade-off patterns across countries. On average, one additional sibling in the family reduces the probability of secondary education by 6 percentage points for girls and 4 percentage points for boys. This Q-Q trade-off is significantly associated with the level of son preference, slightly decreasing over time and with fertility, but it does not significantly differ by educational level of the country.

There is evidence from developed countries that genetic disease is the major cause of childhood blindness. Little data are available from most developing and newly industrialised countries concerning the relative importance of hereditary diseases as a cause of childhood blindness. Children in schools for the blind in 13 countries of Africa, Latin America and Asia were examined between 1990 and 1994 using a standardised method The anatomical site of abnormality and underlying aetiology were analysed for children with a corrected acuity in the better eye of less than 6/60 (severe visual impairment and blindness, svi/BL). In these countries II-39% of svi/BL was attributed to genetic disease. Genetic diseases were responsible for a higher proportion of childhood visual loss in countries with higher levels of socio-economic development. An autosomal recessive mode of inheritance was reported in 22-52% of children with genetic disease. Retinal dystrophies were the commonest form of genetic eye disease (49-80%) in all countries apart from Thailand and the Philippines where cataract was the commonest (43.9%). The role of consanguinity, and opportunities for further research are discussed.

Atopic Dermatitis in Latin America: A Roadmap to Address Data Collection, Knowledge Gaps, and Challenges.

INTRODUCTION: To apply artificial intelligence technology to ideological and political education in colleges and universities, as well as to combine artificial intelligence technology with ideological and political education in colleges and universities, it is necessary that wireless networks have complete coverage. OBJECTIVES: How can ideological and political education in universities and colleges be merged with artificial intelligence? How can artificial intelligence be used to support progressive political education at the college level? Starting with these issues, this paper will focus on the development of ideological and political education in colleges and universities as its main research question and refer to artificial intelligence technology as a method of ideological and political education in colleges and universities supported by wireless networks. METHODS: By examining the characteristics of artificial intelligence and ideological education in colleges and universities, and combining the poor immediacy and weak timeliness of information dissemination, as well as the low degree of identification of student groups with the theoretical courses of ideological education in the field of ideological education under the view of artificial intelligence, to explore the path of innovation of ideological education, RESULTS: In order to adapt to the demands of AI technology and improve people's capacity to use AI learning software, we need start with educators and educated individuals. Additionally, the government should encourage the development of artificial intelligence technologies financially and technically. Finally, it examines how civic education in colleges and universities could be improved through the use of artificial intelligence. This would allow civic education to benefit from the advantages of AI technology. CONCLUSION: In order to support the positive and healthy development of political education courses in colleges and universities across the nation, this paper encourages the creation of concepts and methods for teaching politics in higher education institutions.

FEMINISM AND THE CHANGING STATE