Equality in Income and Sustainability in Economic Growth: Agent-Based Simulations on OECD Data

Outcome of the pesticides peer review meeting on general recurring issues in ecotoxicology

Chronic oral lethal and sub‐lethal toxicities of different binary mixtures of pesticides and contaminants in bees (Apis mellifera, Osmia bicornis and Bombus terrestris)

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Inequality in the distribution of income in the population is an important economic indicator. Today, economic inequality receives considerable attention due to the book of Thomas Piketty Capital in the 21st Century. The tremendous media coverage of the topic also attracted the attention of the world leaders. In many countries, the topic of inequality in income distribution was defined as a national challenge and was found at the top of the priorities of many important organizations, such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). These organizations treat income distribution as the top priority because they see the problem to be a threat to the continuation of the existence of the global economic system [Piketty and Qian 2009]. This paper aims to describe the distribution of income in Israel and provide solutions for a more equal distribution of income.

EFSA Supporting PublicationsVolume 15, Issue 1 1366E Technical reportOpen Access Explanatory note on the selection of forage material suitable for the risk assessment of GM feed of plant origin European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)Search for more papers by this authorMichele Ardizzone, Michele ArdizzoneSearch for more papers by this authorClaudia Paoletti, Claudia PaolettiSearch for more papers by this authorElisabeth Waigmann, Elisabeth WaigmannSearch for more papers by this author European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)Search for more papers by this authorMichele Ardizzone, Michele ArdizzoneSearch for more papers by this authorClaudia Paoletti, Claudia PaolettiSearch for more papers by this authorElisabeth Waigmann, Elisabeth WaigmannSearch for more papers by this author First published: 29 January 2018 https://doi.org/10.2903/sp.efsa.2018.EN-1366Citations: 6 Requestor: EFSA Question number: EFSA-Q-2017-00614 AboutPDF ToolsExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL References Allen VG, Batello C, Berretta EJ, Hodgson J, Kothmann M, Li X, McIvor J, Milne J,. Morris C,. Peeters A and Sanderson M, 2011. An international terminology for grazing lands and grazing animals. Grass and Forage Science, 66, 2– 28. EFSA GMO Panel (EFSA Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms), 2011. EFSA Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO); Scientific Opinion on Guidance for risk assessment of food and feed from genetically modified plants. EFSA Journal 2011; 9(5):2150, 37 pp. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2150 U Meier (ed.), 2001. Growth stages of mono-and dicotyledonous plants, 2nd edition. BBCH Monograph. Federal Biological Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Bonn, Germany. McDonald P, Edwards RA, Greenhalgh JFD, Morgan CA, Sinclair LA, Wilkinson RG, 7th ed., 2011. Animal Nutrition,. Pearson education limited. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), 2002a. Consensus document on compositional considerations for new varieties of sugar beet: key food and feed nutrients and anti-nutrients. Series on the Safety of Novel Foods and Feeds, No. 3. ENV/JM/MONO(2002)4 OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), 2002b. Consensus document on compositional considerations for new varieties of maize (Zea maize): key food and feed nutrients, anti-nutrients and secondary plant metabolites. Series on the Safety of Novel Foods and Feeds, No 11. ENV/JM/MONO(2004)16. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), 2009. Consensus document on compositional considerations for new varieties of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium barbadense): key food and feed nutrients and anti-nutrients. Series on the Safety of Novel Foods and Feeds, No 11. ENV/JM/MONO(2004)16. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), 2011. Revised consensus document on compositional considerations for new varieties of low erucic acid rapeseed (Canola): key food and feed nutrients, anti-nutrients and toxicants. Series on the Safety of Novel Foods and Feeds, No. 24. ENV/JM/MONO (2011)55. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), 2012. Revised consensus document on compositional considerations for new varieties of soybean [Glycine max (L.) merr.]: Key food and feed nutrients, anti-nutrients, toxicants and allergens. Series on the Safety of Novel Foods and Feeds, No. 25. ENV/JM/MONO(2012)24 OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), 2015. Safety assessment of foods and feeds derived from transgenic crops, Volume 1, novel food and feed safety, OECD publishing, Paris. Citing Literature Volume15, Issue1January 20181366E ReferencesRelatedInformation

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ABSTRACTAmong countries in the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Chile stands out as having important inequalities in income distribution, dietary quality, access to urban green spaces, and health outcomes. People in lower socioeconomic groups consistently show higher rates of noncommunicable chronic diseases and are being hit the hardest by the COVID-19 pandemic. These chronic conditions are increasingly considered to be shaped, or affected by, the human gut microbiome. Moreover, inequity as an overarching concept might also be associated with microbial patterns and if so, this may represent a novel pathway through which to address health and other disparities. Focusing on the case of Chile, our goal is to contribute to a critical discussion and motivate researchers and policymakers to consider the role of the microbiome in social equity in future endeavors.

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) was established in 1960, succeeding the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC). Its mission is to promote sustainable economic growth, employment, and financial stability through cooperation and transparency among member countries. The OECD operates under a soft-law framework, utilizing non-binding instruments such as guidelines and peer reviews to influence policy and promote best practices. It consists of the Council, committees, and the Secretariat, which work iteratively to develop and implement policies. The OECD’s work spans diverse areas including taxation, trade, education, and environmental policies, contributing significantly to global economic integration. Its influence extends beyond its thirty-eight member countries through partnerships, global forums, and the inclusion of non-member countries in its activities. Despite challenges in maintaining relevance, the OECD continues to adapt to emerging global issues, emphasizing consensus-building and evidence-based policy recommendations.

ABUNDANT EVIDENCE NOW SUGGESTS THAT LIVING IN relative poverty and exposure to relative income inequality, especially in childhood, may have a detrimental influence on health and well-being during childhood and across the life course. This Commentary discusses the importance of relative poverty in childhood and the implications of income inequality for population health. Child relative poverty (ie, children living in a household with relative income poverty) appears to be a potentially important indicator for children’s health. Relative income poverty is commonly defined as having equivalized household income of less than 50% of the national median. Equivalization is calculated by dividing household income by an indicator of household composition or need, for example, the square rootof thenumberof individuals living in thehousehold. Child relative poverty is strongly related to overall income inequality as measured by the Gini coefficient, which reflects inequalities in the distribution of income and wealth for the population of a nation; a lower Gini coefficient suggests more equal income or wealth distribution, whereas a high Gini coefficient reflects more unequal distribution of income and wealth. For instance, the United States has both the highest national wealth and the highest Gini coefficient. Thus, in the United States, as with many of the world’s richest countries, there is little or no association between national wealth and the levels of income inequality evident within those nations. Given that relative poverty is defined in terms of deviation from country-specific median income, there is no a priori reason to expect an association between relative poverty and national wealth. Two factors appear to be particularly relevant to understanding the variation in relative poverty. First, clear international differences in income inequality (and the consequent risk of exposure to relative poverty) result from levels of participation in and the operation of labor markets. Second, redistributive income policies (the combined effects of progressive direct taxation and provision of welfare benefits) play a key role in attenuating market-driven inequalities and thereby in determining rates of child relative poverty and income inequality experienced by the population. For instance, a recent Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development study reported that child relative poverty rates in 2000 calculated without taking into account any effects due to taxation and benefits were more than 25% in the United Kingdom, France, Australia, New Zealand, and theUnitedStates. However, theeffectsof redistributive income policiesvariedmarkedlyacross thesecountries, reducingactual child relative poverty rates by more than 70% in France (from 28% to 7%) by more than 50% in Australia (from 27% to 15%), by more than 40% in the United Kingdom (from 29% to 16%) and New Zealand (from 29% to 15%), and by just 18% in the United States (from 27% to 22%). Relative child poverty appears to be associated with health and, in particular, the health of nations. For example, international or interstate variation in rates of income inequality or child relative poverty have been associated with higher rates of adverse health outcomes including the following: poorer overall child well-being, infant mortality, low birth weight, not having polio immunizations, child mortality due to unintentional injuries, juvenile homicide, low educational attainment, dropping out of school, nonparticipation in higher education, aspiring to low-skilled work, poorer peer relations, having been bullied, teenage birth rate, physical inactivity, childhood obesity, not eating breakfast, feeling lonely, and mental health problems. Moreover, across nations with wide ranges of per capita income and poverty levels, there appears to be an ecologic association between child relative poverty rates and mortality rates for children younger than 5 years (FIGURE). Similarly, exposure to relative poverty or having a low socioeconomic position in childhood has been associated with increased adult morbidity and mortality resulting from (among other causes): stomach, liver, and lung cancer; diabetes; coronary heart disease; stroke; respiratory diseases; nervous system conditions; diseases of the digestive system; alcoholic cirrhosis; unintentional injuries; and homicide. It is therefore not surprising that increasing attention is being paid to reducing child relative poverty (or ameliorating the effects of child relative poverty) as a central component of attempts to improve the health of nations and reduce health inequalities between and within nations. Indeed, there exists a sound evidence base regarding the de-

Alþjóðastofnanir á borð við Efnahags- og framfarastofnunina (OECD), Sameinuðu þjóðirnar (SÞ), Alþjóðagjaldeyrissjóðinn (AGS) og Alþjóðabankann eru þekktar fyrir að standa að baki útbreiðslu hugmynda, gilda og stefnumála um heim allan. Á 10. áratugnum jókst áhugi fræðimanna á viðfangsefni sem kallað er hér stefnuyfirfærsla (e. policy transfer). Tilraunir fræðimanna fólust m.a. í því að setja ramma utan um nálgunina og skýra af hverju yfirfærsla á sér stað, við hvaða aðstæður, á hvaða stigi o.s.frv. Fátt hefur verið meira rannsakað innan stjórnsýslufræðanna undanfarna áratugi erlendis en viðfangsefnið hefur lítið borið á góma hér á landi. Þrátt fyrir mikinn áhuga á viðfangsefninu alþjóðlega hefur nálgunin verið gagnrýnd þar sem hún er m.a. talin vera of lýsandi og kenningarlega veik. Hafa ekki embættismenn og stjórnmálamenn stolið hugmyndum frá hvor öðrum í aldir? Í ár verður Efnahags- og framfarastofnunin (OECD) 60 ára. Ísland er eitt af stofnaðildarríkjunum og því kominn tími til að rýna þetta langa samstarf sem íslensk stjórnsýsla hefur átt við OECD. Tilgangur þessarar greinar er að fjalla um starfsemi OECD og meta áhrif hennar á íslenska stefnumótun. Í fyrsta hluta greinarinnar er annars vegar fjallað um forvera OECD sem var Efnahagssamvinnustofnun Evrópu (OEEC) og hvernig hún lagði grunninn að því hvernig OECD starfar í dag. Hins vegar er farið ítarlega yfir hlutverk og skipulag OECD og þær áskoranir sem stofnunin hefur staðið frammi fyrir á undanförnum áratugum. Í öðrum hluta er aðferðin stefnuyfirfærsla skoðuð nánar. Aðferðin er skilgreind auk þess sem fjallað er um helstu leikendur. Tilraun er gerð til að ramma inn helstu afbrigði stefnuyfirfærslna og rætt er um sjálfviljuga og þvingaða yfirfærslu. Að lokum er fjallað um þátttöku Íslands á vettvangi OECD. Til að meta að hvaða leyti íslensk stjórnvöld nýta sér afurðir OECD við stefnumótun hér á landi er stuðst við gögn úr árangurskönnunum stofnunarinnar.

The UNICEF Report on Child Well-Being

Issues relating to the perceived inequalities in income distribution are at the center of the political debates taking place currently in the U.S. and elsewhere. Unfortunately, the issues are clouded by the failure to distinguish between inequality in income distribution, which may be justified, and inequity in income distribution, which never is. Furthermore, the traditional method used by economists to measure inequality, the Gini Coefficient, is flawed and particularly unreliable in measuring different conditions of inequality in different countries. A popular policy initiative, recommended by some as a way to redistribute income more equitably, is the ‘universal basic income’ approach. However, there are serious questions about whether this approach is progressive or regressive. A promising alternative may be a variation of the “Environmental Context Dashboard” approach adopted by the College Board in addressing the need to give disadvantaged students better access to the best U.S. colleges and universities. Keywords Inequality in Income Distribution, Inequity in Income Distribution, Gini Coefficient, Universal Basic Income, Environmental Context Dashboard, Landscape Approach.

Income equality plays a fundamental role in ensuring sustainable development and social welfare globally. The increase in economic inequality threatens not only the living standards between individuals but also societal harmony and economic stability. In many developed and developing countries, injustices in income distribution exacerbate social tensions and negatively affect long-term economic growth. This study introduces a novel multi-criteria decision-making framework based on interval-valued intuitionistic fuzzy neutrosophic sets (IVIFNSs) to evaluate and compare income equality across selected Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries. The IVIFNS model improves traditional fuzzy systems by representing truth, indeterminacy, and falsity degrees with interval-valued intuitionistic fuzzy values, offering a more nuanced approach to uncertainty. Algebraic operations are defined using triangular-norms and triangular-conorms, and new aggregation operators are developed. The proposed theory is applied to rank 25 OECD countries based on key income inequality indicators: Gini coefficient, Palma ratio, P90/P10, and P90/P50, using the Weighted Aggregated Sum Product Assessment (WASPAS) method. A comparative analysis demonstrates the method’s effectiveness in capturing complex, uncertain data and producing robust country rankings for policy evaluation.

The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) is the least written about and least well understood of the global multilateral economic institutions. Paradoxically, leading commentators ceaselessly refer to the centrality of the OECD to contemporary global governance, yet rarely has the organization been the subject of sustained academic scrutiny. For instance, Joseph Nye (2002: 144) argued that the OECD, in collaboration with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Trade Organization (WTO), provides ‘a framework of rules for the global economy’. Similarly, Held et al. (1999: 84) cite the OECD among the ‘key multilateral economic fora’ common to all ‘states in advanced capitalist societies’. Nevertheless, having identified the importance of the OECD, these and many other observers proceed to marginalize the role of the organization preferring instead to focus on the IMF, the World Bank and the WTO. Equally, as the other contributions to this volume testify, book-length accounts of the activities of the WTO, the IMF, the World Bank and other leading institutions such as the Group of 7/8 (G7/8), which now has an entire book series devoted to it, are commonplace. In contrast, apart from a smattering of texts authored by the OECD’s own staff (OECD 1971; Sullivan 1997) and a small literature examining the organization’s role in the global trading system (Blair 1993; Cohn 2002), the last single-authored book written in English by an outsider and focussing exclusively on the OECD’s role in global affairs was published nearly forty years ago (Aubrey 1967; Woodward 2007a). More specialized work detailing the history and evolution of transatlantic governance is largely devoid of references to the OECD. One contributor to Gardner and Stefanova’s collection The New Transatlantic Agenda (2001) asserts that ‘the “OECD world” is, first of all, a transatlantic world’ (May 2001: 185) but there is only one further reference to the organization in the volume. Pollack and Shaffer’s (2001) Transatlantic Governance in the Global Economy and Richard Cooper’s (1968) classic study of economic management among the Atlantic community, The Economics of Interdependence, provide greater coverage of the OECD and its predecessor the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) but again these references are sporadic and fragmented. A cursory survey of articles published in the last decade by what, according to the ISI Social Sciences Citation Index, are thetwenty highest impact international relations journals reveals a comparable pattern (see Table 3.1). In purely quantitative terms the OECD does not fair too badly. The WTO is clearly the frontrunner, being the subject of 211 articles during the period, but the OECD with thirty-four articles is only slightly behind the IMF (48) and is ahead of the World Bank (26) and the G7/8 (5). However, only 15 of these 34 articles contain substantive material about the organization, its work or its broader contribution to global governance. The remaining articles were using OECD countries as a basis for comparison. Finally, the OECD lacks the public profile associated with other international organizations. Anti-globalization protests have marred OECD gatherings in Paris (February 1998), Bologna (June 2000) and Naples (March 2001) but typically OECD meetings are low-key affairs passing off without the media comment, sabre rattling and general razzmatazz that accompany the IMF, WTO and the G8.

Purpose of the study. Identification of global trends in inequality in the distribution of the population income. In accordance with the goal, the following tasks are set: 1) to examine current international research that addresses the problem of income distribution inequality of the population; 2) assess the differentiation of the population income at the global and regional levels; 3) on the basis of the Gini and Theil indexes, to analyze the dynamics of income inequality of the population within and between countries of the world.Materials and methods. In the process of preparing the article, theauthor used data from international reports, analytical statistical materials, scientific works of Russian and foreign scientists. The scientific methods of cognition were used in the work: analysis (to assess changes in indicators of income inequality of the population), synthesis (to determine the relationship between inter-country and intra-country income inequalities of the population), graphical (to build graphs that reflect the dynamics of changes in the distribution of national income and assets among the population, Gini coefficient, Theil index). These methods made it possible to identify the scale and trends in the differentiation of the population income in the world.Results. The problem of uneven distribution of the population income was investigated. It has been established that inequality in the population income differs significantly between regions of the world, and the level of inequality of the population in terms of income within countries is much higher than the level of inequality between countries. An assessment of the current state is given and trends in the differentiation of the population income in the world based on the Gini index and the Theil index are revealed.Conclusion. It has been established that the problem of income differentiation of the population is in the focus of attention of both the scientific community and international organizations, namely: the United Nations, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the World Bank, Oxfam. The level of differentiation of the population by income between regions of the world differs significantly. The scale of global income inequality of the population now has reached the level that was observed during the heyday of Western imperialism. With the help of the Gini and Theil indexes, it was revealed that intra-country inequality is significantly greater than the inter-country income inequality of the population.