Environmental viruses from biodiversity to ecology

In January 2020, during China’s COVID-19 outbreak, the NASA Earth Observatory captured aerial images indicating significantly lower emissions of nitrogen dioxide (NO2), a major air pollutant, across China’s mainland.[1] Scientists across the globe have reported preliminary empirical data that amid shelter-in-place directives and the shutting down of large-scale economic activity, the environment is flourishing. Abnormal sightings of wild animals roaming freely in deserted cities have been widely reported. For example, monkeys in Lopburi, Bangkok and leatherback turtles on deserted beaches in Florida, US are thriving.[2] This pandemic has given mother earth a chance to ‘breathe.’ Environmentalists are asking how long the breather will last and whether it will sustain the earth for years to come, when business as usual returns bringing environmental challenges. This pandemic has shaken up business as usual including major economic drivers of supply and demand. At the moment, the demand for oil is at an all-time low whereas personal protective equipment (PPE) markets are booming. The world has entered into a recession, with estimates of a US $2 trillion loss. Approximately 11 million people are being pushed into poverty.[3] People are functioning differently: there is a shift toward working remotely, micro gardening in urban settings, more mindful use of resources, and spending more time at home with friends and family. These trends may put less strain on people as well as on the environment. As people find a better work-life balance and commute less, the 77.5% of pollution caused by car and air travel, may be reduced.[4] Some scientists also argue that if the planet were healthier we would see fewer viruses take hold.[5] Although scientists estimate that the impact of COVID-19 on the environment may be temporarily positive, long-lasting action and commitment are necessary to mitigate climate change. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) adopted by United Nations member states in 2015 aim to achieve climate action, sustainable cities, and sustainable use of the earth and ocean’s resources by 2030. While there is a short-term environmental benefit of lower emissions, the long-term goals may be set back due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[6] The SDGs include eliminating poverty, protecting the planet, and ensuring prosperity and peace for all people.[7] The SDGs are a stark reminder that the pre-COVID-19 world was far from perfect. Most countries’ economies are driven by exponential capitalist growth in which the environment and people are exploited for the sake of profit. Nearly half the world lives on less than $5.50 a day.[8] 44 percent of the world’s net worth belongs to 0.8 percent of the world’s individuals[9]. This crisis has exposed systemic flaws even more, as those who have lower socio-economic standing are disproportionately affected by this pandemic. They are more susceptible because they do not have access to basic sanitation and are often forced to live in places affected worse by climate change and pollution. In 2019 Greta Thunberg, the 15-year-old environmental activist, made the case that the economics to solve the current environmental constraints did not yet exist. In 2020, amid the pandemic, the United Nations (UN) reported that there is a need to rebuild economies differently.[10] Individuals and governments may be spurred to change their approach to climate action requiring a shift of societal norms to value the environment and people’s happiness more than profit growth. In Amsterdam, donut economics will be used to help the economy recover.[11] Donut economics originated from Kate Raworth of Oxford University’s Environmental Change Institute’s book, ‘Donut Economics: seven ways to think like a 21st century economist.’ The inner ring of the donut refers to the minimum that people need to live a good life, which is based on the UN’s SDGs (such as food, clean water, housing, sanitation, energy, education, healthcare, gender equality, income, and political voice). Any person who does not have access to these minimum standards of living is described as living in the doughnut’s hole. The outer ring of the doughnut, where the sprinkles go, represents the ecological outer parameters, drawn up by earth-system scientists. These outer parameters delineate the boundaries which humanity should not progress beyond if it is to avoid damage to the ozone layer, oceans, freshwater resources, and abundant biodiversity. In developing countries such as South Africa, the opportunity to rebuild the economy by means of donut economics seems idealistic because a large percentage of the population lives inside the doughnut hole. The immediate challenges of debt, poverty, and food shortage brought about by the COVID-19 lockdown are pressing.[12] However, visionary leaders should take a long-term perspective as there is opportunity to do so now. For example, during this time President Cyril Ramaphosa aims to reduce the number of ‘people living inside the donut’s hole’ by improving housing infrastructure in rural areas. Rebuilding a more ethical post-COVID-19 world of both environmental and human flourishing[13] will require a planetary health perspective.[14] The Lancet[15] suggests that a planetary perspective must move beyond an emergency response toward resilience and prevention planning. In “Happiness explained: What human flourishing is and what we can do to promote it,” Paul Aland explains that the principles of human flourishing are fairness, autonomy, community, and engagement. These principles may be the pillars for post-COVID-19 environmental policies. Amid the chaos and trauma of this pandemic, it is up to individuals, leaders, scientists, and bioethicists to take a breather to reflect. It is time to dare to imagine what human and environmental flourishing may look like in a more sustainable post-COVID-19 world and start rebuilding it one step at a time. Photo by RawFilm on Unsplash [1] “These Satellite Photos Show How COVID-19 Lockdowns Have Impacted Global Emissions,” World Economic Forum, March 25, 2020, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/03/emissions-impact-coronavirus-lockdowns-satellites/. [2] Harry Kretchmer, “These Locked-down Cities Are Being Reclaimed by Animals,” World Economic Forum, April 17, 2020, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/04/covid-19-cities-lockdown-animals-goats-boar-monkeys-zoo/. Deena Robinson, “Endangered Sea Turtles Thriving Amid COVID-19 Restrictions,” April 20, 2020, https://earth.org/endangered-sea-turtles-thriving-amid-covid-19-restrictions/. [3] World Economic Forum, “Why We Cannot Lose Sight of the Sustainable Development Goals during Coronavirus,” April 23, 2020, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/04/coronavirus-pandemic-effect-sdg-un-progress/. [4] Hiroko Tabuchi, “‘Worse Than Anyone Expected’: Air Travel Emissions Vastly Outpace Predictions,” The New York Times (Online), September 19, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/19/climate/air-travel-emissions.html. [5] “First Person: COVID-19 Is Not a Silver Lining for the Climate, Says UN Environment Chief,” United Nations News, April 5, 2020, https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/04/1061082. [6] The World Bank, “Poverty,” April 16, 2020, https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty/overview. [7] United Nations Development Programme, “What Are the Sustainable Development Goals?,” 2015, https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html. [8] The World Bank, “Nearly Half the World Lives on Less than $5.50 a Day,” October 17, 2018, https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2018/10/17/nearly-half-the-world-lives-on-less-than-550-a-day. [9] James Davies, Rodrigo Lluberas, and Anthony Shorrocks, “Global Wealth Report 2018,” Credit Suisse Research Institute, 2018. [10] “First Person: COVID-19 Is Not a Silver Lining for the Climate, Says UN Environment Chief,” United Nations News, April 5, 2020, https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/04/1061082. [11] Daniel Boffey, “Amsterdam to Embrace ‘doughnut’ Model to Mend Post-Coronavirus Economy,” April 8, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/08/amsterdam-doughnut-model-mend-post-coronavirus-economy. [12] A van den Heever et al., “South Africa Needs a Post-Lockdown Strategy That Emulates South Korea,” The Conversation, April 18, 2020, https://theconversation.com/south-africa-needs-a-post-lockdown-strategy-that-emulates-south-korea-136678. “‘People Need to Eat’: South Africa Eases Coronavirus Lockdown,” Aljazeera, January 5, 2020, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/05/eat-south-africa-eases-coronavirus-lockdown-200501072927207.html. [13] Rose Deller, “Book Review: Happiness Explained: What Human Flourishing Is and How We Can Promote It by Paul Anand,” The London School of Economics and Political Science, August 24, 2016, https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/lsereviewofbooks/2016/08/24/book-review-happiness-explained-what-human-flourishing-is-and-how-we-can-promote-it-by-paul-anand/. [14] Alistair Brown and Richard Horton, “A Planetary Health Perspective on COVID-19: A Call for Papers,” The Lancet 395 (April 4, 2020): 1099. [15] Brown and Horton.

Stratégies villageoises pour la gestion des paysages forestiers du Menabe Central, Madagascar

Ecological impact of phytoinvasions in Ukraine

Freshwater ecosystems represent hotspots for the world’s total diversity and human well-being. However, they are also subjected to threats across the globe as a result of localised human activities, broad scale catchment clearance, climate change and invasive species. The increased degradation of freshwater habitats and their ecological functions as a consequence of these threats, at local and global scales, has led to significant freshwater problems for human existence and the world’s biodiversity. There is growing evidence that the loss of biodiversity is one of the most complex environmental issues facing the world; however, the importance of understanding species distribution patterns and the ecological differentiation among species that are reflected as species-specific responses or tolerances to environmental drivers is less well understood. In particular, when a morphological approach is used as a taxonomic tool for investigating species diversity and species level responses to environmental drivers, the diversity of responses hidden within species complexes may not be realized, and the conclusion of generality may mask specific cryptic species responses. In South-East Queensland, Australia, European occupation since the mid 1800’s has seen large scale clearing of native vegetation along streams and rivers in nearly all catchments. As a consequence of this land-use change catchment hydrology has been substantially altered, which, combined with the presence of dams and weirs, has resulted in a decline in water quality of streams in some catchments, which is of growing concern for conservation of species biodiversity. This study aimed to explore cryptic diversity in two species complexes of freshwater aytid shrimps common in South-East Queensland and elucidate species level responses to environmental variation that could explain their spatial distribution. This broad aim was met through three specific studies. First, using regional scale data of cryptic species diversity and water quality, the importance of species-specific responses to environmental conditions in determining spatial distribution patterns and environmental relationships of cryptic species in the Caridina indistincta and Paratya australiensis species complexes was examined. To accomplish this aim, DNA sequences were used to identify shrimp specimens from 89 sites in 17 catchments spanning the study area. In addition, an assessment of eight morphological traits was used to test whether these cryptic species could be morphologically identified. Use of these eight traits did allow species level identification, at least in South-East Queensland. However, caution is suggested in the use of these morphological traits for recognising species, due to the probability of morphological plasticity within a species across broad spatial scales. Ordination analysis of presence-absence data showed that the five cryptic species within the two species complexes showed spatially distinct distributions across streams in SEQ, with each cryptic species displaying different relationships with individual environmental variables. For species in the Caridina indistincta complex, C. indistincta sp. B was significantly associated with elevation, C. indistincta sp. D was significantly correlated with dissolved oxygen range, whilst, individuals of C. indistincta sp. A were negatively associated with elevation and dissolved oxygen range. This may indicate that C. indistincta sp. A tended to inhabit sites with low elevation and perhaps having a higher tolerance to a low range of dissolved oxygen. For the Paratya australiensis species complex, P. australiensis lineage 4 and 6 showed significant correlations with elevation and conductivity, respectively. The second broad aim of the study was to explore these spatial patterns at smaller geographical scales and with greater detail about water quality to understand and quantify the fundamental environmental factors (e.g., physical chemical water parameters and concentrations of heavy metals) that are potentially shaping the current distribution patterns and abundance of cryptic species within the two species complexes. To explore this aim, sediment samples from 22 sites in 13 catchments in SEQ were analysed to determine concentrations (mg/kg dry weight) of 11 heavy metals. Additionally, a number of water quality variables were measured in situ, including: elevation, stream width, stream temperature, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, pH, total dissolved solids, and turbidity. Also, a water sample was taken from each site for laboratory analysis of: Ammonium nitrogen (NH4-N), Dissolved oxidized nitrogen (Nitrate+Nitrite) (NOX-N), Total nitrogen (TN), Total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), Total kjeldahl phosphorus (TKP), Orthophosphate-P (PO4-P). Shrimps were collected from each site and identified to species using both morphology and DNA sequencing. The morphological identification of each adult individual (except juveniles which were genetically analysed) was used as a measure of absolute abundance and the genetic ‘checking’ of a set number of individuals in each sample was used to compute relative abundance. Redundancy analysis (RDA) showed that the spatial distribution and absolute and relative abundance of C. indistincta sp. D and sp. B were significantly positively influenced by elevation, while the relative abundance of P. australiensis Lin.6 was significantly positively affected by the concentration of manganese (Mn). Stream Total nitrogen (TN) was significantly positive driver of the spatial distribution and relative abundance of C. indistincta sp. A, while Orthophosphate-P (PO4-P) was significantly positive driver for the absolute and relative abundance of this species. Further analysis, this study confirms that P. australiensis Lin.6 was more tolerant of heavy metal concentrations compared with other cryptic species, as its distribution and absolute and relative abundance were significantly positively correlated with the concentrations of manganese, iron and cobalt. In contrast, C. indistincta sp. A was more sensitive to these metals than other study species. These results demonstrated that cryptic species of freshwater atyid shrimps of the C. indistincta and P. australiensis species complexes were different in their environmental requirements. As well, the cryptic species of both complexes were identified to have different associations with heavy metal concentrations, indicating that these species were different in their tolerance to toxicants. Finally, the third aim of the study was to further examine the differences in sensitivity to heavy metals (Copper and Zinc) among cryptic species of the two study complexes experimentally in the laboratory. Two cryptic species of each complex were used as study species, C. indistincta sp. A and sp. D and P. australiensis Lin.4 and Lin.6. The field studies showed differences among these species in their correlations with metal concentrations, and therefore they were seen as good candidate species for testing differences in the sensitivity to metal toxicants. Each cryptic species was exposed to six concentrations of each metal Cu or Zn using an acute (96-h) toxicity test. The results from this study were generally showed contrasting correlation between species and heavy metals; P. australiensis Lin.6 was the most tolerant species to both study metals, while C. indistincta sp. A was more sensitive to copper, and C. indistincta sp. D was more sensitive to Zn compared with the other tested species. Furthermore, the exposure of individuals of each species to the heavy metals caused changes in both their behaviour and their colour during exposure time. Overall, this study has shown cryptic species within broad species complexes can vary in their spatial distribution and their tolerance and response to water quality parameters. This highlights the advantage of using analyses of biotic and abiotic variables for ecological management and biodiversity conservation and the need to understand true species diversity when looking at species level responses to environmental degradation.

Spatio-temporal dynamics and hydro-ecology of intermittent streams in eastern Australia

Biodiversity and ecological functioning of mudflat macrofauna in the Anthropocene

Vegetative status of children as a territorial bio-indicator of ecological safety

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) established to be achieved by 2030 are an ensemble of 17 goals to address global environmental and social economic concerns [1]. SDG 15 concerns the protection of terrestrial ecosystems to halt biodiversity loss. Target 15.9 states that by 2020, ecosystem and biodiversity values should be integrated into national and local planning, and is related to Aichi Biodiversity Target 2 of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, which also involves integrating biodiversity values into national accounting and reporting systems [2]. The importance of maintaining ecosystem integrity is becoming widely recognized, not only to halt biodiversity loss, but also to preserve Nature’s benefits to human well-being, and has been included in many other targets such as the EU 2020 Biodiversity Strategy’s target 2, which requires the restoration of at least 15% of degraded ecosystems as well as the establishment of green infrastructures to enhance ecosystem services (ES) [3]. The Green Infrastructures (GI) framework is used as a policy tool and promotes the multi-functional use of landscapes to improve biodiversity conservation and benefits to society. It is formulated as a “strategically planned network of natural and semi-natural areas” [4] and is based on three main pillars: key habitats for target species, connectivity and ES [5]. As part of ERA-PLANET’s GEOEssential project (Essential Variables workflows for resource efficiency and environmental management), our study aims at demonstrating how the GI framework can be implemented at any geographical area or time-period through reproducible modeling workflows from field data to Essential Variables (EV) data products and policy relevant indicators to monitor and inform advances towards environmental targets. A proof of concept workflow was already set in place for computing the indicator 15.1.2: Proportion of important sites for terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity that are covered by protected areas, by ecosystem, while other workflows will follow. The execution platform is the GEOEssential Virtual Laboratory, a cloud-based virtual platform which enables access to, and execution of workflows for the ecosystem science community of practice and even more. REFERENCES: 1. UNSD, 2016. Sustainable Development Goals Report. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2016/ (accessed 18 May 2018). 2. CBD Secretariat, 2010. The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Nagoya. 3. European Commission, 2011. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - Our life insurance, our natural capital: an EU biodiversity strategy to 2020, Brussels. 4. European Commission, 2013. Green infrastructure (GI) - Enhancing Europe’s Natural Capital, Brussels. 5. Liquete, C., Kleeschulte, S., Dige, G., Maes, J., Grizzetti, B., Olah, B., & Zulian, G., 2015. Mapping green infrastructure based on ecosystem services and ecological networks: A Pan-European case study. Environmental Science & Policy, 54, 268–280.

EMPRESAS SOCIALES RURALES, ESTRATEGIA DE DESARROLLO SUSTENTABLE Y CONSERVACION DEL PATRIMONIO CULTURAL INMATERIAL. CASO: “AMARANTO (Amaranthus spp) DE MESOAMERICA”

Competition and coexistence of reef-corals

Biodiversity loss is the silent crisis of the 21st century. Human activities are drastically altering the diversity of life on Earth, yet the extent of this transformation is shrouded by our limited information on biodiversity and how it is changing. Emerging technologies may be suited to fill this information gap, and as a result increase our capacity to measure and manage natural systems. Acoustic monitoring is a remote sensing technique that is rapidly reshaping the temporal and spatial scales with which we can assess animal biodiversity. Through recording and analyzing soundscapes—the collection of sounds occurring at a given place and time—we can assess biodiversity, habitat condition, and environmental change. However, the relationships between soundscapes and these three ecological dimensions are still in the early phases of categorization, especially in aquatic systems. This dissertation investigates how soundscapes can be used to measure biodiversity, habitat condition, and environmental change in aquatic habitats. It addresses several knowledge gaps: First, I develop a framework for classifying unknown sounds within a soundscape, which I use to measure the acoustic diversity and dynamics within a tropical freshwater wetland. Second, I demonstrate that soundscapes can reflect the resilience of animal communities following disturbance events. Altered soundscapes revealed that Hurricane Maria, which swept through Puerto Rico in September 2017, impacted dry forest animal communities more than adjacent coral reef communities. Third, in kelp forest habitats off the coast of California, USA, I showed that soundscape variables correlated with ecological variables associated with regime shift in kelp forests, including urchin density, kelp cover, and fish diversity. Overall, this dissertation demonstrates that soundscape recording and analysis is a promising way to assess the ecological conditions of aquatic systems.

443Human rights — Environmental rights — Deforestation of Colombian Amazon forest — Protection of human rights — Right to a healthy environment — Right to life — Right to health — Colombian action of protection (“acción de tutela”) of human rights — Whether appropriate mechanism for applicants to protect their rights — Climate change — Effects — International and national instruments for protection of environment — Whether Amazon an entity “subject of rights” — Whether defendants failing to protect applicants’ rights — Whether defendants violating Paris Agreement on Climate Change and Colombian Law 1753 of 2015Jurisdiction — Human rights protection — Collective rights — Appropriate mechanism to protect applicants’ rights — Acción de tutela — Whether appropriate for protection of collective rights and interests — Whether protection of environment entailing safeguarding of supra-legal individual guarantees — Whether minors can bring claim without representationTerritory — Whether territories “subject of rights” — Human rights — Environmental rights — Deforestation of Colombian Amazon forest — Ecocentric anthropic society — Whether Amazon an entity “subject of rights”Relationship of international law and municipal law — Treaties — Paris Agreement on Climate Change, 2015 — Other international instruments — International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966 — Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques, 1976 — Protocol I additional to Geneva Conventions relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, 1977 — 1972 Stockholm Declaration — United Nations Environment Programme — United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro, 1992 — United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development — Rio Declaration on Environment and Development — Principles for a Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of All Types of Forests — Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992 — United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992 — Colombian Law 1844 of 2017 approving Paris Agreement — Colombian Law 1753 of 2015 — Constitution of Colombia — Whether Colombia violating its obligations under international and national law — Whether defendants failing to protect 444applicants’ rights — Whether defendants violating Paris Agreement on Climate Change and Law 1753 of 2015Human rights — Right to a healthy environment — Environmental rights — Action of protection (“acción de tutela”) in Colombia to protect human rights — Article 86 of Colombian Constitution — Popular action (“acción popular”) to protect human rights — Article 88 of Colombian Constitution — Right to life expectancy — Environmental protection — Right to enjoy a healthy environment, life and health — Relationship of environment and ecosystem with fundamental rights of life and health, and with human dignity — Fundamental rights to access water, breathe clean air and enjoy healthy environment — Right not to be sick due to environmental degradation — Right to fresh water — Right to environmental sanitationEnvironment — Territory — Whether territories “subject of rights” — Prevalence of general interest — Duty to protect natural wealth of nation — Ecological function of private property — Natural parks as inalienable, imprescriptible and unattachable — Sustainable development — Collective rights and interests — Colombian Constitutional Court Judgment C-431 of 2000 — Amazon Cooperation Treaty, 1978 — Precautionary principle — Principle of intergenerational equity — Principle of solidarity — The law of Colombia

Acoustic ecology is a dynamic interdisciplinary field that studies the social, cultural, and ecological aspects of our environment through sound. In the context of UNESCO biosphere reserves that seek to reconcile the conservation of cultural and biological diversity, acoustic ecology offers valuable tools to understand environmental and cultural changes from a diversity of perspectives. Biosphere Soundscapes is a large-scale interdisciplinary research project conceived in 2011 that studies and records the changing soundscapes of UNESCO biosphere reserves. The project is underpinned by the creative possibilities of acoustic ecology and rapidly emerging fields of biology concerned with the study of environmental patterns and changes through sound. Biosphere Soundscapes sits at the intersection of art and science, with the recordings providing valuable scientific data for biodiversity analysis and rich source material for education programs, community engagement and creative works that bring awareness to these environments. This project is designed to inspire communities across the world to listen to the environment and explore the value of sound as a measure for social, cultural and environmental health in UNESCO biosphere reserves. Biosphere Soundscapes is delivered through immersive residencies with artists and scientists, research laboratories, intensive masterclasses, virtual education programs and a diversity of creative projects spanning four continents. This article outlines the development of the project and introduces the framework of Biosphere Soundscapes through recent projects in Mexico and Australia designed to provide insight into the possibilities of acoustic ecology and practical pathways for biosphere reserves to engage with the project. Biosphere Soundscapes is designed as a platform for local and global communities to connect and collaborate in exploring the creative and scientific possibilities of acoustic ecology in UNESCO biosphere reserves.

Viruses are ubiquitous in natural environments where they can exist as natural inhabitants or as contaminants from the disposal of human and animal wastes. Studies of viruses in nature are hampered because currently available methods for detection are not ideally suited to environmental applications. In the first part of this thesis, a modified hybridization assay is presented which employs DNase protection and slot blot methods to measure quantitatively the concentration of soluble and bacteriophage-encapsulated DNA in fluid samples. The potential use of this assay for estimating virus viability was tested with a model system consisting of inactivating bacteriophage lambda particles. These experiments show that the new hybridization assay provides upper-limit estimates of bacteriophage viability when inactivation results in the release of DNA. The mobility and ecology of viruses in natural environments is strongly influenced by the adsorption of virus particles to solid surfaces. In the second part of this thesis, a kinetic theory for virus adsorption and inactivation in batch experiments is presented. Based on the results of this theory, a new experimental approach is proposed for studying the effects of solid surfaces on virus partitioning and survival over long time scales. In the third part of the thesis, this new experimental approach was used to investigate the interactions between bacteriophage lambda particles and Ottawa sand over the course of days. Virus/surface interactions on these time scales were strongly dependent on solution pH and electrolyte composition. Sand stabilized the virus at high pH (10) and reduced fluid-phase virus infectivity at intermediate to low pH (5 and 7). The observed reduction in virus infectivity at pH 7 was attributed to virus adsorption to the sand surface, based on data from elution experiments. Viruses adsorbed to the sand at pH 7 desorbed when the sand was resuspended in nutrient broth, but not when the sand was resuspended in a virus-free pH 7 buffer. When model simulations were compared to elution data, virus adsorption did not follow the predictions of quasi-equilibrium adsorption models. On the basis of these results, several alternative kinetic mechanisms for virus adsorption are proposed.

Since research on soft-seabed macrozoobenthic community, including polychaetes, of Mediterranean and in particular Italian Saes still display a lack of data concerning taxonomic aspects and species distribution patterns, and the pre-existing information are frequently outdated, further studies and revisions of data are a primary necessity. These habitats are widely common in coastal areas all over the world and host most of sensitive and protected benthic habitats, species and typical biocoenoses as well as most of the human activities. At the same time, in a framework of an ecological sustainability of human activities, such as sand dredging extraction, upon the marine environment, it is important to understand the extent of their effects on marine ecosystem, to protect the environment itself and to develop management strategies. In Italy, the use of marine relict sands, to repair the effects of the increasing coastal erosion, has become more common in the last decades. The efficiency of biodiversity and environmental monitoring studies in marine environments is strongly influenced by the selection of the spatial and temporal scale. Investigations at regional as well as at adequate temporal scale allow to analyse the comprehensive variability of biological systems, strongly influenced by the interactions of numerous environmental factors (depth, geographic position and sediment types). To display the variability of polychaetes diversity patterns in space and time, and to investigate how this variability is related to the habitat characteristics and human impacts, this research, is aimed to:1) identify diversity distribution patterns of polychaete assemblages and species at a regional (Latium Continental Shelf) related to depth, sediment grain size, latitude and longitude; 2) compare information, concerning the spatial distribution and ecology (related to sediment composition and depth range) of a number of selected soft-sediment polychaetes species, obtained at regional (Latium Continental Shelf) and national scale (Italian Continental Shelf); 3) assess the effects of human activities (sand dredging) on marine ecosystems at a local scale through the analysis of biological diversity variation over time. The amount of pre-existing studies, carried out in Mediterranean and in particular along the Italian Seas, concerning macrozoobenthos species, polychaetes, and their spatial distribution as well as the role of macrozoobenthic community for the environmental assessment, contributes to be the background of this research focused on the assessment of ISPRA multidisciplinary data-set, from environmental monitoring programmes, as a source of valuable scientific data. Results from PERMANOVA, CCA, BIOENV and Spearman rank correlation analyses, have pointed out that the three main categories explaining the drivers of biodiversity patterns in the Tyrrhenian continental shelf are: bathymetric gradients, geographical features, responsible for the north-south gradient in environmental conditions, and environmental heterogeneity (i.e. grain size distribution, habitat complexity). ISA analysis showed that some species distribution is significantly associated to definite sediment grain sizes and depth ranges confirming or updating the ecological characteristics of the investigated species as emerged from the comparison of results of this study with pre-existing knowledge. Moreover, the species distribution patterns as well as the assemblages composition observed along the Latium continental shelf (tested with PERMDISP analysis), confirm results obtained in previous studies carried out in neighbouring areas along Tyrrhenian Sea. A continuum of species distribution along Tyrrhenian continental shelf can be expected and represented by means species diversity maps (by Universal Kriging interpolator) able to represent comprehensive species diversity distribution patterns at the regional scale; despite polychaetes have been demonstrated to be able to respond quickly to changes in their environment as a consequence of dredging activities, the assessment of the effects of these activities upon benthic organisms is quite complex to define.