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PurposeThis study was conducted in four semi-arid regions in Tunisia – Kef, Siliana, Zaghouan and Kairouan – which have a similar agroecological system based on crop–livestock integration and experience serious soil erosion. The study objective is to estimate the technical efficiency of farmers engaged in mixed crop–livestock systems under conservation agriculture (CLCA) and conventional agriculture in rainfed areas of Tunisia.Design/methodology/approachThe study analyzed data from socio-economic surveys conducted in the Tunisian rainfed areas during the 2020–2021 cropping season. A stochastic frontier analysis was used to estimate farm-level technical efficiency and its main driving factors for both adopter and non-adopter farmers.FindingsThe current average technical efficiency level of farmers was 91%. Inputs such as land size and livestock type were significant in increasing farm production. From the estimated coefficients of the inefficiency effects model, five major factors were tested: farmer’s age, education level, dependency ratio, access to credit and extension services. Age and education level positively affected the technical efficiency level.Research limitations/implicationsThis study has potential limitations. To estimate measures of productivity and technical efficiency, we need output and input measures that are consistently defined and independently measured. The choice of output measure depends on several factors, including data availability and analytical purpose. Since we are dealing with different farms that have different combinations of enterprises, in this reach we approximated the total output by combining the total values of outputs (from both crops and livestock) into one dependent variable to overcome this threat.Practical implicationsProviding farmers with accurate and reliable extension information through both conventional and non-conventional technologies (e.g. video, and mobile phones) and improving their educational level through farmers’ field schools are crucial. Combining CLCA practices with improving technical efficiency of farmers in optimal use of inputs through providing training programs, extension services and access to credit for inputs (e.g. small machinery and livestock feed) can contribute substantially to farm productivity, thus enhancing food security in the face of climate change in Tunisian semi-arid areas and other similar contexts.Originality/valueThis empirical research provide evidence on how to improve crop-livestock productivity through diversification under conservation agriculture (CA) system, and reduce the effect of climate variability, it is imperative to provide the enabling environment that will facilitate and encourage production of these output combinations among smallholders in rainfed areas.

This paper concerns Drought-Tolerant Maize (DTM) and Conservation Agriculture (CA) practices that were introduced into smallholder maize-based farming systems in Zimbabwe to enhance the productivity of maize and food security under a changing climate. Although these technologies are technically appropriate, there are difficulties with their use by smallholder farmers of relatively low socio-economic status, as measured through ownership of farm or household assets and endowments. Thus, we sought to quantify and explain wealth-related inequalities in the adoption of DTM and CA in smallholder farming communities and discuss their implications for food security. The analysis used cross-sectional household-level data gathered from 601 smallholder farmers from four districts in Zimbabwe. We found evidence of a pro-rich distribution of inequalities in the adoption of DTM and CA that were mostly explained by differences in household wealth, access to agricultural extension services and size of farm land. No meaningful differences in DTM adoption disparities were found across districts. Significant gender differences were observed for CA, and meaningful differences by district were noted. Results suggest the need for decision makers to consider implementing policies that focus on the poorer segments of the farming society to alleviate differences in the adoption of such agricultural technologies. For example, subsidizing the uptake of improved maize varieties including DTM and prioritizing equitable land distribution, coupled with specialised extension services for the poor in a cereal-based CA farming system, could reduce the observed gap between rich and poor in the uptake of these innovations and consequently improve food security.

The rapid global population growth, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), is expected to significantly increase the demand for food by 2050 while agricultural productivity is inadequate. Conservation agriculture (CA) approaches have been recognised as possible remedy. This study was done semi-arid parts of Kondoa district, Tanzania, examined the effects of CA on households’ food security. Data were collected from 360 farmers through household surveys, employing both principal component analysis (PCA) and a multinomial endogenous treatment effects model to assess the impact of CA. The study found that CA practices significantly improve Household Dietary Diversity Scores per Adult Equivalent Unit (HDDS/AEU) and Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) scores. Factors positively influencing CA package adoption include farm size, household size, social group membership, and access to extension services. The study highlights the synergistic effects of combining multiple CA practices, which collectively have a greater impact on food security than individual practices. The findings underscore the importance of promoting CA practices as a strategy to enhance food security in semi-arid regions. Policymakers and agricultural extension services should focus on providing support and resources to farmers, including training, access to credit, and knowledge-sharing platforms.

Adoption of the trinity of practices known commonly today as conservation agriculture (CA)—maintaining soil cover, reducing tillage, and enhancing soil nitrogen through legumes—is a critical process to the management of erosion in rural landscapes, and maintenance of aquatic habitats and hydropower potential. However, the large literature on the benefits and risks of CA fails to find any universal determinants of adoption, with competing uses for crop residues, availability of labor, and access to physical inputs common constraints appearing in different contexts. We conduct a study in the specific context of Malawi, using ethnographic interviewing to draw out possible decision criteria and machine learning to identify their explanatory power. This study is structured to inform the question: “How do farmers decide to adopt the specific activities of CA in Malawi?” We find that more than any other factor, adoption by neighbors (i.e., peer effects) matters, with possible implications for the overall cost of encouraging CA (e.g., through subsidies) as it is taken up across a landscape. Further, we note that little else within our household survey (save for more detailed articulation of neighbor and neighborhood characteristics) offers greater explanatory power than those factors identified by farmers themselves. Finally, we note that decisions made in the presence of an incentive are structurally different than those made without incentives, validating previous concerns in the literature regarding the basis most CA adoption studies, within CA promotion interventions.

The adoption of Conservation Agriculture (CA) technologies by smallholder farmers is expected to affect agricultural productivity and ultimately improve food security and farm incomes. However, there is still limited empirical evidence on the adoption and effects of CA technologies among smallholder farmers in the semi-arid areas of Tanzania. This study was designed to assess the adoption of CA by smallholder farmers in semi-arid areas. The study used a cross-sectional survey design in four villages in Chamwino districts where CA projects are promoted. A random sample of 260 households was interviewed in this study, including 134 CA adopters and 126 non-CA adopters. Data were collected and analyzed using KoBo and SPSS statistics respectively. Descriptive statistics were used to examine extension approaches applied and analyze the extent of CA adoptions. A logistic regression model explored the determinants influencing farmers’ decisions to adopt CA. In addition, two independent samples t-tests were used to calculate the effect of CA adoption on crop yields and farm incomes. The results show that robust extension services led to a better quality of CA practices on CA farms. Gender, access to extension services, access to agricultural inputs, participation in farmer groups, and access to credit for agriculture significantly influence the adoption of CA. CA adopters achieved better average crop yields and higher farm income per unit area than those who did not adopt CA. Thus, the study recommends that the government and other development actors devote more resources to agricultural extension services and mechanization to support and increase the scaling up of CA technologies. There is also a need to establish and strengthen monitoring and evaluation systems to ensure coherence, impact and sustainability of CF programs in semi-arid areas of Tanzania.

Conservation Agriculture (CA) has been promoted widely in Zimbabwe through several organizations, including government and non-governmental organizations, to help address food insecurity. The sustainability of donor led interventions has been questioned as they are of limited duration, and some research has reported that farmers stop practicing CA when a project ends. However, agriculture extension services are reported crucial in adopting new agriculture technologies; hence, continued access to services is crucial for the sustainable uptake of CA. The use of farmer-led extension approaches has been used to reach more farmers at low cost to promote CA and for sustainability. The study evaluates the sustainability of CA practices as well as lead farmers roles after the end of Christian Care project activities. The findings reveal continued adoption of CA principles, albeit on a small scale. We conclude that CA has become part of the traditional farming system and recommend labour-saving technologies for the uptake of CA on a greater scale. Government extension support has also continued, although lead farmers played a minor role in these extension activities. Lead farmers alone cannot sustainably provide extension services without institutional support. The recommendation is that public extension systems work closely with lead farmers in communities to efficiently reach farmers and ensure better coordination between NGOs and government extension activities.

This study examines smallholder farmers’ conservation agriculture (CA) adoption decisions from a soil management perspective in two semiarid areas of southwestern Ethiopia. The analysis was based on a survey of 392 household heads in each of the mixed maize/sorghum/teff + Moringa stenopetala of Derashe district and maize/teff + banana fruit tree in Arba Minch Zuriya district farming systems. Two groups of smallholders that practice different land management, i.e., conservation agriculture and conventional tillage, were selected. A binary logistic regression model was used to answer the question of factors that determine smallholders’ initial decision to adopt CA. Nine explanatory variables including the age of the household head, level of formal education, family size, size of total landholding in hectares, size of livestock owned in the tropical livestock unit, farming experience, net income from annual + perennial crops, provided extension service by development agents, and lack of access to small-scale irrigation were included in the analysis. The study result revealed that nonpracticing groups have higher schooling, farmland holding, and livestock relative to CA-practicing households. Households with increasing age, schooling, total livestock holding, and higher net per annum income were less likely to practice CA. However, the CA practicing decision was high with an increase in extension service and lack of access to small-scale irrigation. Though CA with the Targa-na-Potayta mulching technique is an age-old practice in the Derashe area, the impact of extension service has indispensable benefits in extending the knowledge to younger smallholders.

Constraints to the utilisation of conservation agriculture in Africa as perceived by agricultural extension service providers

This paper presents a study based on System Dynamics Approach (SDA) whose aim is to support policy and decision makers to design effective policy strategies to foster the adoption of conservation agriculture practices in Sicily. The SDA is a methodological tool that can be used to study and manage complex and dynamic systems characterized by feedback mechanisms, which can be relevantly influenced by the policy&decision-making process and its delays. The SDA may help to define, implement and evaluate decision makers choices from the output of systems to stimulations from the outside. Scientific literature provides important experiences in the field of these simulation models, both for the development of ecological agriculture and for the simulation of the impacts of policy scenarios in a certain region/area. Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a farming system, mainly for arable crops, which helps to achieve goals of sustainable and profitable agriculture. It is currently playing an ever-increasing role in the frame of EU agricultural policies in consideration of the positive impacts it can produce, in terms of sustainable use of natural resources as well as of Climate Change mitigation and adaptation. At farm level, moreover, CA represents a way to combine environmental and sustainability concerns with profitability and competitiveness aspects, in a variety of agroecological zones and farming conditions. Short-term solutions and immediate benefits always attract farmers more than long-term ones. Unfortunately, the full technical, environmental and economic advantages provided by the adoption of CA can be measured and appreciated by farmers only in the medium and long-term, when its principles (minimum soil disturbance, permanent soil cover crop rotation) are well established within the farming system. This evidence, together with other technical, social and cultural forces, relevantly affects the process of CA adoption at farm level as well as the effectiveness of agricultural policy efforts aiming at this result. The aim of this study is to validate a Systemic Dynamic Model (SDM) to be used in ex-ante evaluation to address the public action towards the effective achievement of the planned result of supporting the adoption of CA techniques in a certain region. It seeks answers to strategic questions related to the elements that could influence the effectiveness of the support payment schemes programmed into the sub-measure 10.1 of 2014-2020 Sicily Rural Development Programme (SRDP). The SDA considers relevant variables which affect the application and dissemination of CA techniques among potential beneficiaries whose number is estimated based on sub-measure access conditions and restrictions. For this purpose, the model structure is based on environmental, social and economic issues, e.g. physical and economic farm dimensions, provision of machinery hire, advisory services, reduction of production costs, etc. Results show that in a long term dynamic context the environmental support payment scheme provided by Measure 10 does not represent the only driving force in the system to guide farmers towards the expected shift from conventional to CA agriculture. What is needed is a deeper integration with other policies (innovation policies) and other interventions, e.g. schemes promoting precision farming, collective investments, advice, training and information.

Conservation farming is part of the effort to minimize disturbances in agriculture such as floods, landslides, damage to soil aggregates, and chemical and biological soil properties on sloping land. One of the efforts to develop horticultural farming carried out in Sumberbrantas and Wonokerso villages is mostly carried out on sloping land so it needs attention because land is one of the important production factors in farming. This study aims to analyze the factors that influence farmers' decisions in implementing conservation farming. The research was conducted on carrot farms located in Sumberbrantas and Wonokerso villages, which were determined through a probability sampling approach using a simple random sampling technique conducted in August 2023. The research sample amounted to 59 respondents who were carrot farmers in Sumberbrantas and Wonokerso villages. The variables used include socio-demographics, agricultural extension, knowledge of the importance of land conservation, knowledge of conservation farming, and knowledge of how/techniques to carry out land conservation, with the dependent variable of conservation adoption level analyzed using path analysis to determine the factors that influence farmers in implementing conservation farming. The results showed that agricultural extension variables and conservation farming knowledge directly and significantly affect the level of conservation adoption by carrot farmers in East Java. Meanwhile, socio-demographic variables (age, formal education level, farming duration, household size, and land size) directly affect conservation farming knowledge. This research highlights several important points for agricultural development and conservation. Agricultural extension programs need to be strengthened while more targeted training programs are developed. When designing these programs, it is important to consider farmers' socio-demographic factors for more effective implementation. The research findings will contribute to efforts to support agricultural sustainability in hilly areas and can serve as material for developing more comprehensive agricultural conservation efforts.

Conservation Agriculture is a practice that enhances sustainable and intensified agricultural production. Conservation Agriculture involves; crop rotation, minimum tillage, mulching, zero tillage, maize-legume intercrop, and residue retention. Conservation Agriculture practices are crucial in providing solutions to food and nutrition insecurity, loss of biodiversity and declining soil quality in Kenya. This study documented the current status of Conservation Agriculture use in Gilgil Sub-County of Nakuru County, Kenya, reasons for adoption, and influence of socio-economic, institutional, and agro-ecological factors on adoption of Conservation Agriculture and patterns of use. The study was conducted in July 2020 in Gilgil Sub- County of Nakuru County, Kenya. The study targeted 71,268 farmers and an accessible population of 10,914 farm families respectively. Purposive and systematic sampling techniques were used to select 150 small-holder farmers based on Nassiuma formulae. Data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire. Both descriptive (mean, frequencies, and percentages) and inferential (Multivariate probit and Tobit models and Factorial Analysis of Variance) statistics were used to analyse the data. The results revealed incomplete use of Conservation Agriculture practices: about 87% used less than five of the six recommended Conservation Agriculture practices while only 13% used five to six practices promoted in the area. This result indicates that farm-level benefits of using all Conservation Agriculture practices simultaneously were not fully realized. Second, the study established that farmers used Conservation Agriculture practices for agronomic, environmental conservation, and economic reasons. Furthermore, the differences in patterns of use of Conservation Agriculture practices were significantly determined by extension contacts, main occupation, education, access to credit, external institutional support, group membership, and land size.

High Yielding Varieties (HYV) along with chemical fertilizer, pesticides and irrigation had introduced in Bangladesh in the name of “Green Revolution” to feed the huge population of the country. This results degradation in soil health and reduce productivity in the long run. In this context, conservation agriculture (CA) is becoming increasingly important in overcoming the problems of declining agricultural productivity. This paper investigates the benefits and impacts of CA practiced by the farmers in Bangladesh. The study covered a range of soils and cropping systems for the evaluation of CA in Rajshahi; Mymensingh; Rajbari, and Thakurgaon districts. Data and information were gathered through focus group discussion (FGD), household survey, and case studies. A total of 458 households were interviewed considering the level of adoption of CA from different cropping systems. The results show that most of the farmers under Mymensingh and Thakurgaon districts don’t have any knowledge in sowing/transplanting by machineries whereas farmers in Rajbari and Rajshahi districts have comparatively better knowledge on this. Overall 76.45% respondents know the benefits of using organic matter in soil. For tillage operation, draft power use is higher than other machineries in all cropping seasons. The retention of crop residues was found higher in Boro rice compared to Aman and Aus rice and other crops. A few farm households had a little knowledge on how to improve soil health through retention of crop residues. Only 39.30% respondents practiced crop rotations, and 30% respondents practiced mixed cropping, and most of them experienced increased production. The major constraints of adoption of CA mentioned by the respondents are low production, more weeds, low animal feed, lower cooking fuel and bothering job. Providing adequate knowledge and training of CA should be provided to the farmers for sustainable agricultural productivity.

Agricultural extension and knowledge management have become key blocks in driving sustainable food systems and rural development, especially in periods of dealing with the complexities surrounding climate change and sustainable food systems in localised systems. This study assessed cocoa farmers' participation in public and private agricultural extension services in Ghana. Using descriptive and inferential statistics and collecting data from 385 farmers, the study reveals that private extension services stand out in various indices: access to information (3.72), communication (3.96), and support and follow-up (3.45), while public extension services excel in social and environmental impact (3.54), and knowledge transfer (3.86). Intricate extension programme dynamics also reveal a clear preference for private extension in citizen power (23.6% vs. 7.3%), delegated power (33.2% vs. 8.6%), and partnership (39.2% vs. 13.5%). Using the binary probit regression model, this study examines how various socio-economic factors influence farmers' participation in extension programmes. Results indicate that key determinants for participation in public extension include gender, level of education, land size, availability of labour, and access to credit. Conversely, factors influencing participation in private extension programmes include membership in farmer groups, land ownership, land size, the availability of labour, and access to credit. Policymakers and extension workers can make extension services more useful and open to everyone by focusing on these socioeconomic factors and creating programmes that meet the unique needs and limitations of various farmer groups. This will ultimately lead to higher agricultural productivity, better livelihoods, and better rural development.

Conservation Agriculture (CA) has been widely promoted as a pathway to sustainably intensify agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Yet despite decades of promotion, CA uptake in SSA remains sparse with only few analyses of its impacts on farming and rural livelihoods. This study, which focuses on areas in Central Malawi considered to have a relatively high uptake of CA, uses analyses of satellite images, field observations, interviews with farmers, extension workers and other people involved in CA promotion, as well as a household survey, to investigate how CA has been adapted. We find that the three CA principles – (1) continuous minimum tillage, e.g. no-ridging, (2) permanent ground cover, and (3) crop rotation/intercropping – were not practiced as intended. First, one-third of non-ridged land was tilled during the growing season, and half was again ridged in the following season. Second, unless crop residues were added, the soil’s surface of non-ridged plots was usually bare at planting, causing weed control problems, and an increased risk of erosion. Most farmers added large volumes of crop residues to their non-ridged plots. They collected these from the surrounding fields, but this practice severely restricted the size of these plots. Third, crop rotation/intercropping was practiced less when farmers stopped ridging. Thus overall, very few farmers practised all of the three CA principles simultaneously. CA promotion appeared to only increase yields on plots where mulch was added, but this practice is not scalable. CA promotiondoes not seem to have provided substantial benefits for overall farm productivity, labour-savings or soil conservation.

Conservation agriculture (CA) is described as a farming system that is founded around three principles: minimum soil disturbance (reduced or no tillage), keeping a permanent soil cover (with crop residues, cover crops or both) and plant species diversification (plant associations and sequences). Little to no information has been documented about conservation agriculture adoption in developing countries, such as Rwanda, with especially no information about its hilly and climate-varying part to which the Gicumbi district belongs. This study is targeted towards ascertaining the level of CA adoption in the Gicumbi district in relation to the socioeconomic status of the farming population, to suggest the relevant strategies for accelerating CA adoption specific to this region. The sampling technique used was a non-discriminative, snowball-sampling one, eventually gathering data from 500 households in three sectors. Semi-structured interviews were conducted using household questionnaires. Adoption of CA was related to the knowledge acquired during training and hands-on work on demonstration plots. Some farm-level constraints found were little to no material, few extension services and market problems. The impacts attributed to the use of CA were soil and productivity improvement.