Enforcement Issues in the Governance of Ships’ Carbon Emissions

Alternative sources of energy as marine fuels; the effect on the environment and the financial perspectives for a more sustainable future in the shipping industry

Multi-objective heterogeneous fleet deployment and scheduling with green technology adoption considered

Market-based Measures (MBM), a catalyst for new and effective technologies, can be highly rewarding for the shipping industry on its way to reach 50% decarbonization by 2050. To regulate emissions and improve energy efficiency in maritime transportation industry, MBMs are in focal point at the decision-taking level both for International Maritime Organization (IMO) and European Commission (EC). EC included shipping into European Union’s (EU) existing Emission Trading Scheme (ETS). However, IMO’s scheme will be functional after 2023 and decision of an MBM is not finalized yet. The motivation of this paper is to analyze viable MBMs under the Initial IMO Greenhouse Gases (GHG) Strategy based on their superiority and evaluate the influence of EU’s policy implementation on global shipping industry. The issues such as economic implications, feasibility, social and environmental responsibilities, and harmony of the policy are included to the manuscript to assess the success of the MBMs. Main concerns and thoughts revolving around EU ETS; such as economic implications of a taxation, the existence of an administrative body for shipping in EU ETS, carbon leakage caused by high taxation, voyage evasion of emissions by not delivering goods to distant areas, emergence of a fraud-proof and more secure system with an administrative body, success factors of EU ETS after 16 years, full certainty of reducing emissions rather than incentives to reduce emissions, monitoring and reporting schemes; are discussed to bridge the issue with EU’s reasonings.

To significantly reduce sulfur oxides emissions from fossil fuel-powered ships, reduce air pollution in ports and slow ocean acidification, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has imposed the new 0.50%m/m limit (reduced from 3.50%m/m in the past) on sulphur in ships’ fuel oil. This has given rise to a host of issues regarding fuel replenishment operations, safe operation management, maritime regulation, and coordinated governance of air and climate. In response to ocean acidification and climate change, regulations on the use of low-sulfur oil or alternative fuels by ships greatly reduce sulfur oxide emissions, but have no significant impact on reducing greenhouse gas emissions. In fact, the refining process for low-sulfur fuels and the use of the gas cleaning system on ships both increase energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. To ensure the decarbonization process of shipping industry, there is an urgent need for a conceptual change in global ocean governance so as to promote the coordinated governance of air pollution and climate change. China’s conception of “a maritime community with a shared future” provides a new model for global ocean governance. The Chinese government has formulated regulations at different levels to promote the coordinated management of atmospheric pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions. Regarding supervision of sulfur oxide emissions from ships, this study proposes to build a multi-department collaborative supervision mechanism from marine fuel life cycle to enhance sulfur oxide monitoring and risk control capabilities. Specific measures of the proposed supervision mechanism include: the joint supervision of compliant fuel supply, the compliant fuel information disclosure platform, a joint law enforcement mechanism for atmospheric pollution, the ability of intelligent ship exhaust monitoring, and the construction of port power infrastructure.

The complexity of climate change and its global nature as a problem affecting the international community necessitates a variety of measures deriving their authority from different international regimes. Acknowledging the global and complex nature of shipping activities, the Kyoto Protocol entrusted the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from marine bunker fuels to the International Maritime Organization (IMO). 1 Since 1997, the IMO’s Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) has been actively engaged in discussions concerning the reduction of GHG emissions from ships and the elaboration of a legal framework for energy efficiency in the shipping industry as a means of tackling climate change. In what was heralded as a historic decision, the MEPC adopted mandatory measures to reduce GHG emissions from ships at its sixty-second session in 2011. These measures form the first legally binding, multilateral climate change-related agreement since the Kyoto Protocol. Despite some progress in the recent MEPC and the adoption of a resolution on the promotion of technical co-operation and the transfer of technology, progress in the IMO is slow. In this framework, the European Union (EU) is considering a variety of options such as the inclusion of ships emissions in its GHG reduction commitment, the elaboration of a monitoring, reporting, and verification system based on fuel consumption, and market-based mechanisms with the view to contributing to global efforts and the IMO process. The negotiation process at the IMO for the adoption of measures to reduce GHG emissions from ships has demonstrated a number of challenges and uncertainties stemming from regime interaction between the IMO regime and the principles and institutional framework of the UN Framework Convention on

The present study examines whether the Race to the Bottom and Revised EKC scenarios presented by Dasgupta and others (2002) are, with regard to the analytical framework of the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC), applicable in Asia to representative environmental indices, such as sulphur emissions and carbon emissions. To carry out this study, a generalized method of moments (GMM) estimation was made, using panel data of 19 economies for the period 1950-2009. The main findings of the analysis on the validity of EKC indicate that sulphur emissions follow the expected inverted U-shape pattern, while carbon emissions tend to increase in line with per capita income in the observed range. As for the Race to the Bottom and Revised EKC scenarios, the latter was verified in sulphur emissions, as their EKC trajectories represent a linkage of the later development of the economy with the lower level of emissions while the former one was not present in neither sulphur nor carbon emissions.

Although commercial shipping contributes only about 3% of annual global carbon emissions, the shipping industry is now subject to what may be the first internationally uniform, legally enforceable, measures to reduce carbon emissions. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) introduced carbon-emission regulations in 2023 that apply to virtually all commercial trading ships in the world. These regulations have already been amended in 2025, although implementation of the revised regulations has been delayed. The European Union has also introduced measures designed to restrict carbon emissions from ships visiting EU ports. Both the IMO’s measures and the EU’s have the target of reaching zero carbon emissions from ships by 2050. Unlike many other such targets, this is not merely aspirational; it is legally enforceable in ways described in this chapter.

In many parts of the world, shipping-related emissions have already exceeded or are expected to soon exceed those from land-based sources. Shipping emissions can be reduced substantially by using some of the same technologies being applied to land-based sources, including cleaner engines and fuels, exhaust control methods, and operational modifications. Various ports are testing the feasibility of these mechanisms with varying degrees of success. What is perhaps most greatly needed is expedited creation of better regulations at all levels, from the International Maritime Organization to port city authorities.

The impacts of black carbon (BC) emissions on climate change, human health, and the environment are well-documented in scientific literature. In response, efforts have been made to reduce BC emissions, particularly in sectors such as energy production, industry, and road transport. However, the maritime shipping industry has largely been exempt from stringent BC emission regulations. While the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has established emission limits for pollutants such as SOx, NOx, and VOCs, as of today, BC emissions from ships are still unregulated at the international level. Whereas the IMO expected that BC emissions would be reduced with the adoption of the SOx regulations, especially within the sulphur emission control areas, this study found that these goals remain largely unmet. This research analyzes real-world BC emissions based on 886 measurements from ships operating in the southern North Sea. Results show that observed BC emission factors (EFs) are significantly higher than previously reported in the literature and those applied by the IMO. In particular, ships equipped with exhaust gas cleaning systems (EGCS) demonstrate increased BC emissions, raising concerns about the environmental benefits of EGCS as a sustainable technology. Non-compliance with sulfur regulations also results in elevated BC emissions, underscoring the need for effective enforcement measures for the existing sulfur emission limits. Furthermore, BC EFs were found to be highly load-dependent, with ships emitting substantially more BC at lower engine loads. This is especially worrying as low engine loads are frequently used in the North Sea for navigation and strategic planning. While slow steaming is increasingly adopted for fuel efficiency at global level. These findings emphasize the significant leverage that the implementation of BC regulations and the development of BC abatement systems could represent for the maritime industry in its ambition to significantly reduce its climate impact.

Vol. 114, No. 4 EnvironewsOpen AccessEHPnet: International Maritime Organization Erin E. Dooley Erin E. Dooley Search for more papers by this author Published:1 April 2006https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.114-a219AboutSectionsPDF ToolsDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InReddit In 1948 an international conference in Geneva adopted a convention formally establishing what is today called the International Maritime Organization (IMO). The IMO initially worked mainly to ensure maritime safety, but after a 1967 spill of 100,000 tons of crude oil off the southern coast of England, the organization began focusing attention on alleviating the environmental impacts of the shipping industry. Today the IMO has devoted a section of its website at http://www.imo.org/home.asp to these environmental programs.The Marine Environment section, accessible through the menu at the top of the IMO homepage, provides an overview of how the IMO works to regulate and prevent marine pollution by ships, with links to in-depth information on the applicable international treaties. The first such treaty is the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78), which was adopted in 1973 and modified in 1978. This treaty governs accidental and operational oil pollution as well as pollution by chemicals, packaged goods, sewage, garbage, and air pollution. The 1990 International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation calls on parties to establish measures for reporting and handling oil pollution incidents. The IMO also serves as secretariat for the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, which was adopted in 1972.A list of links on the Marine Environment page leads to other topics of interest. The Ship Recycling page has a detailed overview of the IMO’s moves to govern the disassembly and recycling of ships. Although the organization adopted recommended guidelines on ship recycling in 2003, the IMO’s senior technical body agreed in 2005 to develop legally binding regulations for the design, construction, operation, and preparation of ships to enable safer and more environmentally sound recycling, along with rules for enforcing the instrument. The Ship Recycling page also has links to an IMO article on ship recycling, to pages on the current guidelines for ship recycling, and to the website for the joint IMO/International Labour Organization/Basel Convention Working Group on Ship Scrapping.The Prevention of Pollution section has links to pages on specific forms of pollution covered by the conventions that the IMO is responsible for (such as oil pollution, chemical pollution, sewage, and air pollution). These pages provide information on the specific protocols that govern each area, background on the pollution source and the problems it can cause, and details about how the treaties came about. Within this section there is also a page about shipboard pollution prevention equipment required under MARPOL 73/78.The Ballast Water Management section includes information on the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments, which was adopted in February 2004, as well as information in seven languages on other IMO guidelines covering this subject. There is also an external link to the site for the Global Ballast Water Management Programme, a partnership between the IMO, the UN Development Programme, and the Global Environment Facility that seeks to help developing countries understand the problem of ballast contamination and prepare to implement the convention.FiguresReferencesRelatedDetails Vol. 114, No. 4 April 2006Metrics About Article Metrics Publication History Originally published1 April 2006Published in print1 April 2006 Financial disclosuresPDF download License information EHP is an open-access journal published with support from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health. All content is public domain unless otherwise noted. Note to readers with disabilities EHP strives to ensure that all journal content is accessible to all readers. However, some figures and Supplemental Material published in EHP articles may not conform to 508 standards due to the complexity of the information being presented. If you need assistance accessing journal content, please contact [email protected]. Our staff will work with you to assess and meet your accessibility needs within 3 working days.

As a developing country, extensive carbon and sulfur emissions are associated with China’s rapid social and economic development. Chief among them are the emissions from coal and oil consumption. This paper focuses on the demand side, attempting to regulate the range of relative price of oil to coal at the consumption level. Through the adjustment of the relative price, the goal of reducing the emissions of carbon and sulfur could be achieved in the market of energy consumption. Data regression is applied to investigate the functional relationship between emissions and energy prices. The results indicate that when the coal price is less than 300, the higher relative price leads to less carbon and sulfur emissions; when the coal price is more than 300 and less than 500, there exists an optimal relative price which has the least carbon emissions, and this value is not more than 11.5; when the coal price is more than 500, the smaller relative price is beneficial to decline carbon and sulfur emissions. The changed trend of relative price-sulfur emissions is very similar to relative price-carbon emissions. Compared to the present energy situation in China, the relative price of oil to coal still need to be reduced especially when coal price is more than 500.

With the onset of the first ever Greenhouse Gas (GHG) regulation for ships by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) in 2011, the container shipping industry requires the combined use of technical and operational emissions reduction measures to improve the environmental performance of its vessels. Studies show that most existing measures are cost effective with a range of emissions reduction potential. However, the level of implementation is not depicted and the potential of the measures may be over-estimated. An evaluation of the emissions reduction measures is conducted through the examination of 3 factors, namely level of implementation, emissions reduction potential and cost effectiveness. Strategies to overcome the critical barriers of implementation are suggested in this study. Lastly, recommendations for companies with regards to GHG issues are made. The strong link between cost effectiveness and level of implementation is highlighted in this study. It is also shown that there is immense potential to reduce emissions from ships given the availability of measures with significant reduction potential. However, the top barriers of implementation, namely cost of measure and lack of information, need to be addressed for a higher level of adoption. This report serves as the first step to map strategy for managing GHG in the shipping industry. The importance of cost effectiveness in decision making from a ship operators perspective prompts the adoption of measures that are the most cost effective first before measures with high emissions reduction potential. It is prudent for shipping companies to adopt a more environmentally friendly operation as green is the way forward in the shipping industry.

The desulphurisation of shipping: Past, present and the future under a global cap

Maritime transportation account for the most efficient and economic transportation of goods across the globe but many environmental impacts are to be considered. According to the latest International Maritime Organization (IMO) reports, maritime transportation accounts for 2-3% of all global greenhouse gas emissions. IMO has recommended bringing down 50% of these emission levels by 2050. This has created a greater demand among shipbuilders and industry to adopt sustainable methods that can reduce carbon emissions. This study aims at bringing a sustainable alternative approach that canbe implemented in the shipping industry to bring down carbon emissions. Carbon footprint (CF) is the tool used here to study the sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and their quantities. Analysis of carbon footprint during each stage of the ship’s lifecycle is carried out and alternative approaches are implemented at three levels. The first approach is applied on operation level, second on type of fuel used, and third on powering. The result shows that streamlining the ship’s hull brings a 1% reduction in total carbon emission. Switching from fossil fuel to biofuel and renewable fuel shows a significant reduction in GHGs, also renewable alternatives are highly effective and go at pace with environmental sustainability. Reducing the shipping speed and slow steaming can bring down two-third of the total carbon emission. Electric propulsion not only serves as a reduction in carbon intensity but also has immense potential for future developments.

Reducing carbon emissions is crucial for humanity. Recently, the International Maritime Organization has set carbon emission quotas to limit the extensive carbon emissions from the marine industry. This paper examines how shipbuilders can adopt the rebuilding of decommissioned ships to reduce carbon emissions and also make more profits. Incorporating the carbon emission quota policy, we formulate the dynamic rebuilding model of decommissioned ships and derive the optimal rebuilding and pricing control strategies for the shipbuilder. We investigate the evolutionary dynamics as well as the impact of carbon quotas and carbon emission savings on shipbuilder’s strategies. The study’s findings suggest that shipbuilders have the potential to improve their profitability while also contributing to energy conservation and emission reduction. This can be achieved through the implementation of technological innovations aimed at reducing carbon emissions from their production activities. The government has a crucial role to play in regulating and managing shipbuilders. In cases where the cost per unit of carbon quota is deemed excessively high, it may be necessary to establish appropriate regulations that prevent shipbuilders from directly benefiting from the trade of carbon quotas. This approach can also help ensure the positive development of the carbon trading market.