Energy potential, health benefits, antinutrient reduction methods, and nutritional properties of Indian millets: a review.

ABSTRACTPhysical infrastructure, such as market centers and roads, can foster women's economic empowerment and gender equality and mitigate adverse effects of seasonality on availability and prices of nutritious foods. The lack of infrastructure is therefore a major challenge for agricultural development in Sub‐Saharan Africa and South Asia—the regional focus of this study. It threatens food and nutrition security, depriving low‐income consumers' access to healthy, affordable food and quality nutrition. Interestingly, previous studies show that physical infrastructure promotes inclusive growth and maximizes positive impacts such as improved well‐being and sustainable development, and can contribute to the empowerment of women and girls. When infrastructural investments are planned, delivered, and managed using nutrition‐sensitive, gender‐inclusive, and responsive approaches, it can help to address barriers that impede access to nutritious diets, nutrition security, and structural inequities militating against women and girls at the household and market levels. Hence, investments in physical infrastructure could be a useful pathway for meeting various Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 1–No Poverty, 2–Zero Hunger, 3–Good Health and Wellbeing, 5–Gender Equality, 6–Clean water and sanitation, 7–Affordable and Clean Energy, and 8–Decent Work and Economic Growth). However, few studies have examined the evidence and gaps on infrastructure's impact on nutritious diet, women's economic empowerment, and gender equality in low‐ and middle‐income countries (LMICs) in Sub‐Saharan Africa and South Asia. Evidence and gap maps are useful tools for promoting evidence‐informed decision‐making by making evidence and research gaps accessible to policymakers, development practitioners, and researchers. This EGM was conducted in the consultations with stakeholders. This study seeks to identify, map, and provide an overview of the existing evidence and gaps on the impact of physical infrastructure on nutritious diets, women's economic empowerment, and gender equality among low‐income consumers in LMICs in sub‐Saharan Africa and South Asia regions. A standardized search strategy was adapted for searching published and unpublished studies in 3 academic databases, 33 institutional websites, Google, Google Scholar, 3 existing EGMs, and 8 registries of randomized control trials and pre‐analysis plans from June 2022 to September 2022. Additional papers were identified through OpenAlex in EPPI‐Reviewer. We supplemented the database searches by conducting hand searches and backward citation searches in identified reviews for relevant studies. We also contacted five prominent authors in the literature for relevant completed and on‐going studies for the EGM. The selection criteria adapted the PICOS (population, intervention, comparison, outcomes, and study design) approach. The intervention was defined as those related to establishing or upgrading physical infrastructure for the agricultural sector and local economic development, such as production, post‐production, distribution, and information. Furthermore, the outcomes were nutritious diets, women's economic empowerment, and gender equality. This EGM does not specify a comparison group. Two other eligibility criteria for including studies were publication in the Year 2000 and onwards, and those studies written in the English language. A total of 17,102 studies were uploaded and screened in EPPI‐Reviewer data management software for titles and abstracts. About 969 studies were screened for full‐text, and 342 eligible studies were included in the map based on a pre‐defined code. The unit of analysis was a study. Therefore, each item presented in the EGM is a study. Studies reporting multiple interventions, outcomes, or study designs were coded multiple times per the appropriate coding category, but counted as one entry in the EGM. All outliers and out‐of‐range frequency values of assigned codes were identified and cleaned. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics in Microsoft Excel and STATA version 16. The EGM was generated using EPPI‐Mapper. A total of 342 studies (337 completed and 5 ongoing studies) from 54 countries across the sub‐Saharan Africa and South Asia regions were included in the EGM. The EGM shows a steady growth in evidence over the last two decades. Most of the studies were impact evaluations (n = 178), followed by summative evaluations (n = 101). Non‐experimental evaluation (n = 255) was the most common study design employed, followed by qualitative studies (n = 94), systematic review (n = 9), and scoping and other reviews (n = 48). This EGM did not find any studies using randomized controlled trials. The few systematic reviews included in the EGM had no accompanying meta‐analysis. The most studied regions were Eastern Africa (n = 133), followed by West Africa (n = 100) and South Asia (n = 93). Production infrastructure (n = 202) had most of the evidence, compared with post‐production infrastructure (n = 125), distribution infrastructure (n = 41), and information infrastructure (n = 2). Nutritious diets outcomes (n = 274) were the most reported indicators, compared with women's economic empowerment (n = 89) and gender equality (n = 53) outcomes. The aggregate map showed that production infrastructure and nutritious diets had the most cluster of evidence (n = 188) and this suggest a potential area for future evidence synthesis. This EGM presents evidence and research gaps around infrastructural interventions related to nutritious diets, women's economic empowerment, and gender equality, with specific references to the continents of Sub‐Saharan Africa and South Asia. Most of the evidence is based on non‐experimental impact evaluations, and we could not find any randomized controlled trials—a critical gap for future research. The majority of evidence was gathered in Eastern Africa, whereas Central Africa was the least documented. The most studied intervention was irrigation, and more evidence was found on nutritious diets than on women's empowerment and gender equality. This is important at the academic level and at the policy level to assist resource allocation and to support evidence‐based policy tools such as systematic reviews and policy briefs.

The world is dealing with both agrarian and nutritional issues. We must concentrate on dry lands in order to further increase grain production because agricultural lands with irrigation facilities have been fully utilised. It is difficult to use dry lands to produce enough high-quality grains because of their low fertility. Millets, a crop that complies with climate change regulations, outperform other grains like wheat and rice in terms of poor growing conditions and high nutritional value. Sustainable food systems aim to provide sufficient and nutritious food, while maximising climate resilience and minimizing resource demands as well as negative environmental impacts. We perform a series of optimizations to maximize nutrient production (i.e., protein and iron), minimize greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and re-source use (i.e., water and energy), or maximize resilience to climate extremes. We find that increasing the area under coarse cereals (i.e., millets, sorghum) improves nutritional supply (on average, +1% to+5% protein and +5% to +49% iron), increases climate resilience (1% to 13% fewer calories lost during an extreme dry year), and reduces GHGs (−2% to −13%) and demand for irrigation water (−3% to −21%) and energy (−2% to −12%) while maintaining calorie production and cropped area. The extent of these benefits partly depends on the feasibility of switching cropped area from rice to coarse cereals. Climate-resilient millets are regarded as "Miracle Grains" because of their ability to adapt to a wide range of ecological conditions while using less water for irrigation and producing more effectively in low-nutrient soils. They exhibit little vulnerability to environmental stresses and only minimal demand for artificial fertilisers. Reviving interest in millet groups as nutritious foods that can improve food and nutritional security and reduce malnutrition is necessary. Two main groups of millets are great millets (Sorghum and Pearl millet) and Small millets (Finger millet, Foxtail millet, Little millet, Proso millet, Barnyard millet, Kodo millet and Brown top millet) classified based on the grain size. Both great and small millets have traditionally been the main components of the food basket of the poor people in India. India stands first in area of millets with 90.94 lakh Hectare followed by Niger with 69.99 lakh Hectare. Millets area of the entire world accounts for 312.44 lakh Hectare. India also stands first in production of millets with 115.6 lakh tonnes followed by Niger with 37.9 lakh tonnes. Millets Production of the entire world accounts for 284.59 lakh tonnes. Uzbekistan stands first in yield of millets with 7563 kg per ha followed by Switzerland with 4236 kg per Hectare, yield of the entire world accounts for 910 kg per ha (Food and Agricultural Organization, 2017). Millets contain high amounts of proteins, fiber, niacin, thiamine and riboflavin, methionine, lecithin and little of vitamin E. They are rich in minerals like iron, magnesium, calcium and potassium also. Due to their nutritional value, millets may help prevent cancer, reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, stop the growth of tumours, lower blood pressure, lower the rate at which fat is absorbed, delay gastric emptying, and increase gastrointestinal bulk. Value-adding millet grains as ready-to-eat and ready-to-cook foods provides farmers with a good opportunity to increase income generation, promotes production, and fosters marketing, all of which lead to the creation of jobs, income, and nutritional security. However, the successful harvest of small millets justifies the incorporation of tried-and-true and climate-smart technologies for the satisfaction of the population's future needs. The review paper focused on all these aspects. Moreover, the research scope mentioned in the review paper implies future directions for enhancing millet-based agriculture viable in diversifying food baskets and achieving food and nutritional security in a hunger-free society.

Millet crops are affected by various biotic and abiotic stresses. Among biotic stresses, blast disease caused by Pyricularia grisea (finger, pearl and proso millets) and Pyricularia setariae (foxtail millet) is the most devastating and widespread disease that causes substantial grain and forage yield losses and is a key constraint to pearl millet, finger millet and foxtail millet production in most of finger millet growing areas, and recently, it is also reported in barnyard millet in few locations. This book chapter emphasizes mainly on occurrence, distribution, symptoms, yield loss, etiology, genetic diversity, mode of spread of the pathogen and survival and integrated disease management approaches for mitigating of disease. This information will be highly helpful for better understanding of the disease. Further, it will be useful to enhance production and productivity of millets and to reinforce the food and nutritional security in the developing countries of Asia and Africa continents where the millets are mainly grown as staple food crops.

There has been an increasing demand for functional foods with numerous health benefits due to intensified consumer awareness leading to a major shift in the consumption patterns of food. This has largely been attributed to increased lifestyle diseases across different populations. The use of food with nutraceutical and functional properties for management of lifestyle diseases like diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular problems is now gaining momentum among the public. Consequently, the consumption of chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) has increased in recent years particularly due to its high content of omega-3 fatty acids and dietary fiber. Chia seeds also contain high quality proteins which offer all the essential amino acids and several vital minerals. In addition, chia seeds are a potential source of antioxidants and polyphenolic compounds such as chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, myricetin, quercetin, and kaempferol with the major phenolic acid being rosmarinic. Owing to the rich nutritional profile, chia seeds provide numerous health benefits such as; cardiac protective and hepatic protective effects, anti-aging and anti-carcinogenic properties. The high amounts of dietary fibers present in the seeds also confer benefits by preserving good glycemic control thus helps in controlling diabetes mellitus. In addition to the numerous health benefits accrued to consumption of chia seeds, they have great potential in application in the food industry for; development of various baked products, production of biodegradable edible films, use as emulsifiers and stabilizers among other uses. This review provides an in-depth insight into the potential of chia crop in promoting nutrition and food security by providing comprehensive information pertaining to; its origin, cultivation and distribution, physical properties, nutritional characteristics, health benefits, functional properties and its potential use in the food industry. It evident that chia seeds contain superior nutritional components as compared to other seeds and also confers many health benefits such as antioxidative, anti-hypertensive and hypoglycemic properties among others. It possesses physical and functional properties that make it an excellent crop for use in food applications for the development of functional foods. Moreover, its application not only limited to food but can also be used for feed. Chia therefore demonstrates great potential as a crop that can be utilized for improved food and nutrition security.

Traditional cereal crops are important for food and nutrition security in rural communities of southern Africa, but their productivity is often constrained by low soil water largely linked to low seasonal rainfall and long intra-seasonal dry spells. Planting basins (PB), tied ridges (TR), and conventional ploughing (CP) were evaluated, over two cropping seasons (2020/2021 and 2021/2022), for their effects on sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.), Moench], pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br.], and finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn] productivity on degraded (<0.4% soil organic carbon) and productive (>0.6% soil organic carbon) fields under rainfed conditions in Mbire (<450 mm rainfall year−1) and Mutasa (>800 mm rainfall year−1) districts in Zimbabwe. Field trials were established on degraded and productive field sites in each district, with sorghum, pearl millet, and finger millet either sown as monocrops or intercropped with cowpea. The experiments were laid out in a 2 × 3 × 3 factorial in a randomized complete block design (RCBD). The highest sorghum grain yield response of 2100 kg ha−1 was attained under PB on productive soils. Overall, PB and TR increased sorghum, finger millet, and pearl millet grain yields by 43% to 58% compared with CP. Growing sorghum, finger millet, and pearl millet on productive soils increased grain yields by 64%, 33%, and 43%, respectively, compared with degraded soils. Intercropping sorghum, pearl millet, and finger millet with cowpea increased cereal yields by between 23% and 42% over the sole crops. Rainwater use efficiency averaged 1 kg grain mm−1 on productive fields and 0.4 kg grain mm−1 on degraded fields. PB produced the highest net profit of $US408 on a productive field. Overall, production of sorghum and millets on productive soils gave positive economic returns irrespective of rainwater management option and cropping system. Conversely, 63% of the treatments on degraded soils recorded negative economic returns in both districts. We conclude that in-field rainwater management technologies combined with other agronomic practices like intercropping increase the productivity of sorghum and millets under rainfed conditions. However, degraded soils remain a challenge for the increased productivity of traditional cereal crops.

Millets are an important but often overlooked group of cereal grains in global agriculture, with significant nutritional and agronomic value. India stands out as a millet cultivation leader, contributing significantly to global production and boasting a robust market poised for expansion. Millets are increasingly being recognized for their climate resilience and sustainable farming characteristics, in contrast to the productivity challenges that major staples such as wheat and rice face under changing climatic conditions. This study focuses on North East India (NEI), where millet cultivation is important for agricultural diversification and sustainability. Employing Man-Kendall test, the study examines historical trends in millet cultivated area, production, and productivity from 2000-2001 to 2022-2023, and then forecasting millet cultivated area and production using ARIMA models. The best fitted ARIMA model was found to be ARIMA (0, 0, 1) for millet cultivated area and ARIMA (2, 0, 1) (2, 0, 2) (2) for millet production. The models highlighted anticipated growth in millet cultivation and production by the year 2025-26, underscoring the potential for strategic agricultural planning and policy interventions. The study emphasizes the need for enhanced crop diversification, particularly in regions like Sikkim and Tripura which showed stagnant growth during the past decades, require enhanced crop diversification to optimize land use and enhance farming resilience against economic and environmental uncertainties. Moreover, this research aims to inform policymakers, agricultural stakeholders, and researchers about the spatial and temporal dynamics of millet cultivation in NEI, promoting sustainable agricultural practices and nutritional security in the face of global food security challenges.

Effect of parboiling on decortication yield of millet grains and phenolic acids and in vitro digestibility of selected millet products

The paper presents the results of a study on the mechanical properties of cereal grain and of rape stems, conducted within the framework of the continuing long-term cooperation between the Bohdan Dobrzański Institute of Agrophysics, The Polish Academy of Sciences (IA PAS) in Lublin, and the Czech University of Life Sciences (CULS) in Prague, Czech Republic. Within the scope of the mechanical properties of cereal grain, the study showed a significant relation between the physical conditions of kernels of common wheat as determined through X-ray detection, and their mechanical properties determined by means of standard tests used in the mechanics of structural materials and of the tests used in the technology of cereal grain processing. The study on the mechanical properties of rape stems demonstrated inter-variety differences between plants with varied resistance to lodging. The estimation of the variability of the mechanical properties along the length of rape stems showed the existence of a characteristic point located close to the first bifurcation. Significant effects were noted of the density of the canopy expressed in the number of plants per square meter, and of nitrogen fertilisation on the strength characteristics of rape stems obtained on the basis of tests of mechanical properties. At the same time, a relation was proved between the mechanical properties of the stems and absorption of X-rays

Measurement of the dielectric properties of moist granular materials such as cereal grain and oilseed is essential for understanding their electrical behavior and the development of nondestructive methods for determining physical characteristics such as moisture content and bulk density. For better modeling of these materials and effective use of indirect characterization methods, the dielectric properties have to be measured accurately. Dielectric data for moist granular materials are limited in the literature, particularly those measured above 2.45 GHz. Very often the data available are given at a single frequency for a limited range of bulk densities and moisture contents. Data that cover a broad frequency range were often taken with different measurement techniques with different degrees of accuracy, given the nature of granular materials. In this study, dielectric properties of cereal grains and oilseeds were measured with the same free-space measurement setup between 2 and 18 GHz and at room temperature. For better accuracy, two horn/lens antennas providing a focused beam were used, multiple reflections were minimized by selecting appropriate sample thickness, and time-domain gating was applied to filter out undesirable post-calibration mismatches. For each sample of given moisture content, dielectric properties measurements were performed at three different densities. The moisture levels were those of interest to the grain and oilseed industry. Variation of the dielectric properties of cereal grain and oilseed with frequency, moisture content and bulk density are shown and tabulated data are provided.

The White House National Strategy on Hunger, Nutrition, and Health (National Strategy) encourages actions across government and society to promote nutrition security. Nutrition security includes adequate food, diet quality, and equity, and food retail settings can promote these major concepts. Of all National Strategy whole-of-society calls to action, food retailers can contribute to 15 calls as key actors. However, there is currently no standardized monitoring tool to track food retailers' commitments and actions toward the National Strategy to promote nutrition security. The Business Impact Assessment-Obesity and population-level nutrition (BIA-Obesity), a tool originally developed for corporate accountability monitoring, can be tailored for the National Strategy and nutrition security, given its standardized indicators and process to assess food company policies and commitments across six domains. We discuss the fit of the BIA-Obesity indicators for tracking food retailers' commitments and actions across four pillars of the National Strategy. Existing indicators are appropriate to monitor components of Pillar 1: Improve Food Access and Affordability; Pillar 2: Integrate Nutrition and Health; Pillar 3: Empower All Consumers to Make and Have Access to Healthy Choices; and Pillar 5: Enhance Nutrition and Food Security Research. We suggest expanding current indicators to include equity, local foods, the digital food environment, and food waste reduction to improve alignment of the BIA-Obesity with the National Strategy. Application of the BIA-Obesity as an existing tool can facilitate data cohesion and more rapid assessment of the food retailer landscape to mutually meet nutrition security goals by 2030.

Nutrition insecurity is the lack of consistent access to safe, healthy, and affordable food. This analysis describes the prevalence and geographic distribution of this condition compared to food insecurity. Based on the 2023 Los Angeles County Health Survey, 34% and 26% of adults were nutrition insecure and food insecure, respectively. Gaps between low- and high-prevalence areas for these two conditions were 33.4% and 43.6% points. Healthy food access constraints include affordability, food assistance ineligibility, and lack of healthy food options at local stores. Findings underscore a need for policies and food system adjustments that prioritize food quality alongside quantity.

Pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] is an important component of agri‐food system in areas experiencing drought and high temperature and for increasing the resilience to climatic stresses and addressing malnutrition. The purpose of this review is to examine strategies for improving productivity, stress resilience, and nutritional quality of pearl millet and to understand its consumption pattern. Genetic diversification of hybrid parental lines remains strategically important to breed diverse, disease‐resistant and drought‐tolerant hybrids. Resistance to diseases, tolerance to drought, and high temperature and greater contents of iron and zinc are targeted in improving hybrid parental lines. Lodging resistance, compact panicles, panicle exertion, and improved seed set are universal traits, whereas duration, tillering ability, seed color, and seed size have a strong regional preference. The strategy of developing high‐yielding and disease‐resistant hybrids with adaptation to challenged agro‐ecologies has led to increase in yield from 303 to 1219 kg/ha between 1960 and 2020. Yield and stress resilience are to be increased further using conventional breeding and new tools like genomic selection, speed breeding, genome editing, and precision phenotyping. Mainstreaming grain nutritional traits, viz., iron and zinc contents in genetic improvement are essential to develop high‐yielding and nutrient‐rich pearl millet. There is need to enhance the consumption of pearl millet by strengthening existing value‐chain, providing consumer a choice of diverse range of food products, creating awareness about its health benefits and promotion through government schemes.

Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) is a nutritious and drought-resistant cereal grain that has been traditionally grown in many parts of the world, particularly in arid and semiarid regions. In recent years, there has been growing interest in the potential significance of pearl millet in the management and prevention of diabetes mellitus. This review will discuss some of the prospective benefits and significance of pearl millet for individuals with diabetes mellitus. Pearl millet has a low glycemic index, which means it has a relatively slow and steady impact on blood sugar levels when compared to high-GI foods. This is particularly beneficial for individuals with diabetes as it can help control post-meal blood sugar spikes. It's important to note that while pearl millet can be a valuable addition to the diet of individuals with diabetes, it should be part of a well-balanced diet that is tailored to their specific needs. The overall dietary approach should be coordinated with a healthcare professional or dietitian to ensure that it aligns with the individual's health goals and needs. Additionally, individuals with diabetes should monitor their blood sugar levels and make adjustments to their diet in consultation with a healthcare provider, as the impact of specific foods can vary from person to person. Pearl millet, like any other food, should be consumed in moderation as part of a diversified diet. In conclusion, pearl millet has the potential to be a significant component of a diabetes-friendly diet due to its low glycemic index, high fiber content, nutrient profile, and antioxidant properties. However, it should be part of an overall strategy that includes other healthy eating habits and lifestyle choices to effectively manage and prevent diabetes mellitus.

Background: The aim of the current study was to forecast the area, production, and productivity of millet in India up to 2023. And also examining the growth patterns and instability of millet crop cultivation in India. The main objective of this study is to provide policymakers with data on millet cultivation in India up to 2030. This information will help them to make decisions about future food distribution, import and export regulations, pricing schemes, and administrative procedures related to the marketing and storage of nutri-cereals. Methods: For the present research study, annual time series data from 1970-71 to 2022-23 on area, production, and productivity of millet in India (Agriculture Statistics at a Glance 2022) [1] were used in the analysis. The study used the compound annual growth rate (CAGR) and the Caddy Della Valle instability index to find out the growth patterns and instability of millet crop cultivation in India, respectively. In order to forecast future values of millet production, Box-Jenkins ARIMA model was employed. Results: Decadal analysis of millet cultivation in India reveals a consistent decline in cultivation area and production of sorghum in the years 2011-2023 with -4.811 and -2.997, respectively, and productivity in 2001-2010 was 3.052. The productivity trends of Bajra, Ragi, and small millets in 2011-2023 are 1.99, -0.67, and 3.72, respectively. Caddy-Della Valle Instability Index results show that, compared to rice and wheat, millets such as sorghum, bajra, ragi and small millets show more variability in area, production, and yield. The sorghum area's forecast values demonstrated a declining pattern, from 3535.02 thousand hectares in 2022-2023 to 2416.12 thousand hectares in 2029-2030. Similarly, in 2029-2030, sorghum production dropped from 3814.34 thousand tons to 3259.34 thousand tons. From 2022-2023 to 2029-2030, productivity increases from 1149.24 kg/ha to 1308.64 kg/ha. Similar forecasts have been made for the area under cultivation, production, and productivity of finger millet, small millets, and pearl millet up to 2030. Thus, high-yielding varieties, timely application of inputs, and governmental measures like policy support, the public distribution system, subsidization, and awareness-raising through propaganda and demonstration can all help to increase the output of these nutri-cereals.

Cereals play a significant role in food security for humankind across the world. Most calories, B-vitamins, minerals, and proteins are obtained from cereals like wheat, rice, maize, barley, oats, sorghum, rye, and millets. Among them, wheat, rice, or maize is commonly considered a single staple food in most countries, and these cereals provide greater than 90% of the total cereal calories. In general, the consumption of cereal grains accounts for more than 50% of the world’s daily calorific intake. Each kind of cereal grain has distinct physical properties according to its shape, size, weight, texture, and density. Differences within species are comparatively less than differences among genera. The physical properties are affected mainly by the surrounding environment and handling during the storage of cereals. This is a significant criterion for designing different equipment and machinery for cereal-based food processing and preservation. The physical properties are also important to determine the specific end use of cereal grains because they affect the functionality as well as the chemical composition of grain. Therefore, this chapter deals with the different physical properties of cereal grains and the grain quality characteristics.