Energy Harvesting Technologies in Electric Vehicles and Applications in Sustainable Agricultural Transportation: A Review

Overview of energy harvesting and emission reduction technologies in hybrid electric vehicles

This paper presents a nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC) scheme and a case study for improving the regenerative braking (RB) energy recovery for electric vehicles (EV) with in-wheel motors. The first part deals with a braking torque split problem, that is, given a desired vehicle longitudinal velocity profile, design braking torques for front and rear wheels independently to increase the RB energy recovery. The second part provides a case study to see the effects of different vehicle velocity profiles, with the same initial and terminal velocities and desired travelling distance, on RB energy recovery. The controller developed in the first part employs a three degrees-of-freedom longitudinal vehicle dynamic model with explicit considerations on the experimentally-measured, motor-to-battery RB efficiency map. Simulation results show that the proposed NMPC is capable of restoring more RB energy than a conventional PI controller does. The case study clearly shows the great potential in planning a priori velocity trajectory that is optimal in terms of energy recovery for RB control of EVs with in-wheel motors.

The main aim of this project is to develop a hybrid energy storage system employing regenerative braking and vibration-powered energy for a hybrid electric vehicle. A system has been designed involving improved regenerative braking using fuzzy logic controller and vibration powered energy harvester by piezoelectric ceramic plates. The system provides safer braking according to the driver’s intent and driving condition. Besides, the system can harvest the mechanical energy from pressing the pedals in a hybrid electric vehicle and convert it into electrical energy. The integration of regenerative braking system and vibration-powered energy system is successful. The main storage supercapacitor was charged by the individual systems at different intervals. The prototype was evaluated by applying a 10N to the vibration-powered energy system harvester at a constant rate for 20 seconds, followed by activation of regenerative braking. The average power of the storage supercapacitor was 0.19W after the charging by both vibration-powered energy system and single braking by the regenerative braking system. It showed an increase of 97.9% compared to solely energy harvesting by the regenerative braking system.

Energy harvesting, a cutting-edge technology that captures wasted energy from vehicles, constitutes a means to improve the efficiency of electric vehicles. Dissipated energy can be converted into electricity using regenerative energy recovery systems and put to various uses. This study tenders a thorough examination into energy recovery technologies which could be applied to the various types of energy dissipated in electric vehicles. The paper investigates the possible sources of energy recoverable from an electric vehicle, as well as the various types of energy dissipated. It also examines the energy recovery technologies most frequently used in vehicles, categorizing them according to the type of energy and application. Finally, it determines that with further research and development, energy harvesting holds considerable potential for improving the energy efficiency of electric vehicles. New and innovative methods for capturing and utilizing wasted energy in electric vehicles can be established. The potential benefit of applying energy recovery systems in electric vehicles is a vital issue for the automobile industry to focus on due to the potential benefits involved. The ongoing progress currently being made in this field is expected to play a significant role in shaping the future of transportation.

Lowering the dependence on fossil fuels and reducing pollution from greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is incredibly achievable through electric vehicle (EVs) technology. EV technology is an innovation that uses electricity, rather than fossil fuels, to power and refuel (recharge) vehicles. The adoption and development of EVs should lead to a decline in future demand for fossil fuels, which are finite in supply and exhaustible. Inherent challenges in EV technology, such as inadequate supply of critical minerals, power grid overload, battery technology constraints, extended charging durations, insufficient charging infrastructures, high initial costs, and limited driving range, must be addressed. The technology of charging infrastructures cannot be over-emphasized in EV technology. EV technology, charging infrastructures, vis-à-vis the impact of their integration into the grid is investigated. Effective control strategies and power management systems (PMSs) are required to optimize energy use to improve EVs' efficiency and lifetime. This research uses comprehensive analysis methods to assess various control strategies, PMSs, and their effects on EV integration into the grid.

Renewable energy sources (RESs) and electric vehicles (EVs) have been introduced as efficient technologies to address environmentally friendly and sustainable energy sources. However, the widespread integration of distributed renewable sources into the power grid and the growing adoption of EVs pose new challenges for distribution network operators. These challenges necessitate careful management to mitigate their impacts, particularly in meeting the additional demand arising from EV charging. To achieve these targets, it is necessary to strategically integrate RESs and EVs. This study focuses on the optimal allocation and energy management of distributed energy resources (DERs) and electric vehicle parking lots (EVPLs), taking into account the inherent uncertainty in the output power of these resources. Notably, parking lots (PLs) utilize vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology of EVs and aggregate and inject their power into the distribution system. Therefore, EVs as a motion type of energy storage system play a significant role, especially in the on-peak hours. The optimization problem is addressed using the salp swarm algorithm (SSA) while adhering to operational constraints related to the power system, as well as both DERs and EVPLs. The main goal is to simultaneously enhance the technical, economic, and environmental performance of the system, by solving a multi-objective optimization problem. The effectiveness of this approach is evaluated using the IEEE 33-bus distribution system, with the study considering five different scenarios. The simulation results reveal that the planned deployment of DERs, given their proximity to the load centers, has effectively mitigated the overload impacts resulting from EVs’ charging. Furthermore, the implementation of a demand response program (DRP), cooperatively with the aforementioned resources, has significantly improved all key operating indicators of the system.

In addressing sustainability challenges within the transportation sector, the integration of electric vehicles (EVs) with renewable energy sources, notably solar and wind power, presents a promising solution. This comprehensive review delves into recent advancements and trends in EV technologies, covering crucial areas such as battery innovations, charging infrastructure, vehicle design, and market dynamics. Various EV technologies, including Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs), battery-based EVs, Solar-powered EVs, and solar-wind hybrid EVs, are meticulously examined, with a particular focus on the feasibility and efficacy of solar-wind hybrid solutions. The review extends to battery technologies, emphasizing advancements in lithium-ion batteries and emerging chemistries like solid-state and lithium-sulfur batteries, which address barriers to EV adoption through enhanced energy density, charging efficiency, and cost-effectiveness. Additionally, the review scrutinizes the expansion of charging infrastructure, encompassing fast-charging stations, wireless charging technologies, and initiatives integrating smart grids, all aimed at providing convenient and efficient charging solutions to alleviate range anxiety and bolster EV attractiveness. Economic considerations, including initial investments, operational savings, and government incentives, are thoroughly analyzed alongside environmental benefits such as reduced greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. Furthermore, a critical examination of the regulatory and policy framework supporting EVs sheds light on future policy directions, tax incentives, and regulatory measures. Real-world case studies showcasing successful implementations of solar-wind hybrid EV projects underscore their effectiveness and multifaceted impacts across diverse geographical areas. In conclusion, this review underscores the recent trends in EV technologies, emphasizing the feasibility and benefits of solar-wind hybrid EVs in achieving minimal emissions and incentivizing sustainable transportation practices.

The rising popularity of electric vehicles increases the need for advanced techniques to improve driving efficiency. One such method is regenerative braking, which captures kinetic energy from the wheels—energy that would otherwise be lost as in traditional braking systems. In this study, a fully electric vehicle model which is three degrees of freedom was created with a fixed pedal-feel brake pedal and electric motors on both axles. The brake torque produced by pedal stroke input in different braking scenarios was allocated to the electric motors on the front and rear axles via dynamic programming in MATLAB/Simulink. It was compared to the case where the distribution ratio is fixed. More energy was gained with dynamic programming compared to the fixed allocation, and it is concluded that the duration of pressing the pedal and the repetition of pressing are effective parameters on energy recovery.

Electric vehicle (EV) technology has the potential to help reduce CO2 emissions and harmful air pollution in urban areas. However, the current performance of the battery technology and plug-in charging infrastructure limit the extent to which the EV technology can be introduced and transport applications in which it can be utilised. Wireless power transfer technology could be used to develop a network of charging points and road sections capable of supplying power wirelessly to EVs that allow opportunistic charging of EVs to overcome the issues of limited range and long charging times. This article describes the principles behind the technology and discusses its possible applications in transport, opportunities that it may provide, and current issues and challenges to adoption. Case studies and examples of activities around the world where this technology is being developed, trialled or implemented are provided to support the discussion.

Battery charge equalization controller in electric vehicle applications: A review

This study examines the efficacy of a seat inertial suspension system in relation to vibration isolation and energy recovery in electric commercial vehicles. The research focuses on the structural modifications of the suspension system that arise from the incorporation of an inerter, a novel vibration isolation component. A dynamic model of the seat inertial suspension is constructed, which includes two different structures consisting of components connected in parallel and in series. The analysis explores how the absorption of suspension parameters affects both seat comfort and the characteristics of energy harvesting. Furthermore, an optimal design methodology for the seat inertial suspension is proposed, seat comfort and energy recovery efficiency are also taken into consideration. The findings reveal that the parallel-structured seat inertial suspension system demonstrates superior overall performance. Specifically, it achieves a 36.6% reduction in seat acceleration, a 55.3% decrease in suspension working space, and an energy harvesting efficiency of 41.9%. The seat inertial suspension significantly improves occupant comfort by reducing seat acceleration, significantly reducing the amplitude of seat suspension movement, and recovering most of the seat suspension’s vibration energy, in comparison to traditional seat suspension systems.

A novel nonlinear mechanical oscillator and its application in vibration isolation and energy harvesting

With the development of low power electronics and energy harvesting technology, selfpowered systems have become a research hotspot over the last decade. The main advantage of self-powered systems is that they require minimum maintenance which makes them to be deployed in large scale or previously inaccessible locations. Therefore, the target of energy harvesting is to power autonomous ‘fit and forget’ electronic systems over their lifetime. Some possible alternative energy sources include photonic energy (Norman, 2007), thermal energy (Huesgen et al., 2008) and mechanical energy (Beeby et al., 2006). Among these sources, photonic energy has already been widely used in power supplies. Solar cells provide excellent power density. However, energy harvesting using light sources restricts the working environment of electronic systems. Such systems cannot work normally in low light or dirty conditions. Thermal energy can be converted to electrical energy by the Seebeck effect while working environment for thermo-powered systems is also limited. Mechanical energy can be found in instances where thermal or photonic energy is not suitable, which makes extracting energy from mechanical energy an attractive approach for powering electronic systems. The source of mechanical energy can be a vibrating structure, a moving human body or air/water flow induced vibration. The frequency of the mechanical excitation depends on the source: less than 10Hz for human movements and typically over 30Hz for machinery vibrations (Roundy et al., 2003). In this chapter, energy harvesting from various vibration sources will be reviewed. In section 2, energy harvesting from machinery vibration will be introduced. A general model of vibration energy harvester is presented first followed by introduction of three main transduction mechanisms, i.e. electromagnetic, piezoelectric and electrostatic transducers. In addition, vibration energy harvesters with frequency tunability and wide bandwidth will be discussed. In section 3, energy harvesting from human movement will be introduced. In section 4, energy harvesting from flow induced vibration (FIV) will be discussed. Three types of such generators will be introduced, i.e. energy harvesting from vortex-induced vibration (VIV), fluttering energy harvesters and Helmholtz resonator. Conclusions will be given in section 5.

Vibration-related issues are common causes of failure in precision machines, and energy harvesting techniques can help mitigate harmful vibrations and recycle waste energy. This Letter introduces an electromagnetic energy harvester utilizing a quasi-zero stiffness mechanism to achieve simultaneous vibration isolation and energy harvesting. The system utilizes mutually exclusive magnets to generate positive stiffness and flexible bending beams to offer negative stiffness, which counterbalances each other to realize quasi-zero stiffness. Physical prototypes were fabricated, and their vibration isolation and energy harvesting performance were assessed under various magnet distances and excitation conditions. Experimental results validate that the proposed system achieves both vibration isolation and energy harvesting. It exhibits outstanding vibration isolation performance when the frequency exceeds 5 Hz. Notably, the magnet distance significantly affects the energy harvesting performance: compared to the 37 mm configuration, adjusting the magnet distance to 41 and 39 mm increased the power output by 54.9% and 31.7%, respectively. This study lays an important foundation for advancing integrated vibration isolation and energy harvesting technologies.

Electric vehicle technology has grown rapidly in recent years due to battery advancements, environmental concerns and supportive policies. Regenerative braking systems play a critical role in improving energy efficiency by converting kinetic energy into electrical energy, thereby extending battery life and vehicle range. However, conventional regenerative braking faces challenges in energy recovery, comfort, and adaptability. Optimizing energy recovery ensures prolonged battery life by preventing overcharging or undercharging, making EVs more sustainable and cost-effective. This review paper explores the integration of Artificial Intelligence and machine learning techniques in regenerative braking systems to overcome these challenges. This study examines AI techniques such as regression models, neural networks, deep reinforcement learning, fuzzy logic, genetic algorithm and swarm intelligence based techniques for regenerative braking. The study also compares AI-based strategies with traditional braking methods. Unlike previous studies, which focus on individual AI techniques, this paper provides a comparative analysis of multiple AI approaches, assessing their impact on braking performance and energy recovery, and propose a hybrid AI framework. This paper covers challenges in real-time implementation, road adaptability, and vehicle control integration. This paper also discusses future research that optimize braking performance like V2X communication, edge computing, and explainable AI etc.