Emotions and class: the social function of feelings in shaping inequality

Despite repeated attempts to integrate competing perspectives (Szelenyi and Kostello 1996; Nee and Matthews 1996), the ongoing market transition debate has shown no signs of resolution. Instead, the 1996 AJS market transition symposium seems to have created more controversy than it settled (Nee 1996; Xie and Hannum 1996; Oberschall 1996; Parish and Michelson 1996; Walder 1996; Fligstein 1996; Szelenyi and Kostello 1996). And subsequent studies continue to reach nearly opposite conclusions (cf. Bian and Logan 1996; Gerber and Hout 1998; with Brainerd 1998; Nee and Cao, in press). When arguments become polarized, it often signals that divisions are falsely drawn (Bates 1997). Although originally made in another context, this observation is applicable here. As principals in this lively debate, we believe that clarification and reevaluation are essential for moving toward a reconciliation of competing viewpoints. In this comment we therefore identify the central issues in the controversy and provide an overall assessment of existing empirical evidence

The articles published in this issue of the Journal help advance the debate on market reform in former socialist states. In our comment, besides dealing with data analysis issues, we suggest several ways to improve the level of debate about substantive issues. These suggestions include more attention to politics, including path dependence, and more attention to middle-level generalizations from other developing market societies.

Preface. 1.Sociology and Stratification. Theoretical Perspectives on Stratification. Karl Marx. Max Weber. Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore. Ralf Dahrendorf. Gerhard Lenski. A Strategy for the Study of Stratification. Historical and International Dimensions of Stratification. Levels of Analysis and Stratification. Power and Stratification. 2.Social Class and Stratification: Occupational Prestige and Class Identification. Occupational Prestige. Occupational Prestige in the United States. The Meaning of Occupational Prestige. Racial/Ethnic and Gender Differences in Occupational Prestige. The Stability of Occupational Prestige over Time. The Stability of Occupational Prestige across Societies? Class Identification. Patterns of Class Identification. The Meaning of Class Identification. A Note on Employed Married Women. 3.Social Class and Stratification: Mobility and Status Attainment. Social Mobility. Social Mobility in the United States. Social Mobility in Other Nations. Social Structure and Mobility. The Reproduction of the Class Structure. International Variations in Mobility. Status Attainment. Status Attainment in the United States. Status Attainment in Other Nations. The Individual and Status Attainment. A Vignette. Socialization and Status Attainment. 4.Gender and Stratification. Dimensions of Gender Stratification. Gender Stratification in the United States. Gender Stratification in Other Nations. Some Consequences of Gender Stratification. Authority and Gender. Victimization and Gender. The Individual and Gender Stratification. Women's Choices. Discrimination against Women. Social Structure and Gender Stratification. The Decline of Gender Stratification. The Continuation of Gender Stratification. 5.Race/Ethnicity and Stratification. Dimensions of Racial and Ethnic Stratification. Racial and Ethnic Stratification in the United States. Racial and Ethnic Stratification in Other Nations. Some Consequences of Racial and Ethnic Inequality. The Individual and Racial and Ethnic Stratification. Public Place Discrimination. Discrimination by Organizations. Social Structure and Racial and Ethnic Stratification. Historical Variations in Racial and Ethnic Group Mobility. Racial and Ethnic Stratification Today. 6.Political Participation and Power. Types of Political Participation. Voting. Partisanship. Unruliness. The Rate of Voting. Voting in the United States. Voting in Other Nations. The Role of Money in Elections. The Cost of Winning. Money, Winning, and Reelection. Where Does the Money Come From? Two Examples. Social Structure and Political Participation. The Structure of Voting. The Sources of Partisanship. Money and Anomie. 7.The Rich. The Characteristics of the Rich. Counting the Rich. The Basis of Great Wealth. Top Wealthholders. The Historical Trend in the Distribution of Wealth. The Kuznets Hypothesis. The Colonial Era. The Nineteenth Century. The Twentieth Century. The Trend Since 1980. The Origin and Expansion of Wealth. Power and Wealth Inequality. Social Class and Lifestyle. 8.The Middle Class. Social Class and Job Perquisites. Private Pensions. Medical Insurance. Sick Leave. Disability Insurance. Vacation and Personal Leave Time. Top Level Perquisites. Power and Job Perquisites. Social Class, Income Inequality, and Income Transfers. Social Class and Income. Trends in Income Inequality. Tax Expenditures and Income Inequality. Power and Income Inequality. Social Class and Lifestyle. 9.The Working Class. Social Class and Occupation. Working-Class and Middle-Class Occupations. Social Class and Job Setting. Social Class and Job Security. The Human Consequences of Unemployment. A Note on the Meaning of Work. Economic Deprivation. Psychological Stress. Familial Disruption. Social Class and Lifestyle. On the Working Class. 10.The Poor. Dimensions of Poverty. Poverty in the United States. Poverty in Other Nations. The Measurement of Poverty. Are the Poor Really Poor? Public Assistance and Poverty. Characteristics of Public Assistance Programs. The Paradox of Public Assistance. The Benefits of Poverty. The Individual and Poverty. Age. Race and Ethnicity. Family Characteristics. Low-Wage Job Skills. Work Experience. Social Structure and Poverty. The Long-Term Fall in the Poverty Rate. The U.S. Poverty Rate Today. Concluding Comments. 11.The United States in Global Context. Poverty and Inequality in the United States and Developing Nations. Inequality in the United States and Western Nations. Some Practical Strategies for Reducing Inequality. 12.Reflections on the Study of Stratification. Objectivity in the Study of Stratification. Research Methods in the Study of Stratification. Paradox in the Study of Stratification. Appendix: Hypothesis Discussed in The Structure of Social Stratification in the United States. References. Index.

The authors consider two hypotheses for crowding at the lower-secondary level and the reversal in intergenerational mobility: 1) the economic crisis of the 1980s and 2) institutional barriers to the continued expansion of schooling. Though the crisis appears to have played a role we find evidence that institutional barriers are also important. The existence of these barriers is problematic for the long-term prospects of educational expansion because it suggests a deep-rooted limit of the system and not just a temporary setback. This article proceeds as follows. Section II discusses the links between schooling inequality intergenerational mobility in schooling and income inequality. Section III describes the data and provides an overview of educational expansion over the past 47 years. Section IV establishes trends in intergenerational schooling mobility. Section V ponders the causes and implications of the recent slowdown in schooling mobility and Section VI concludes. (excerpt modified)

Spatial Implications of The Journey To School: A Review And Case Study

هدف این مقاله، بررسی تأثیر سرمایۀ فرهنگی عینیت‌یافته بر تحرک اجتماعی میان‌نسلی در شهر گرگان است. روش تحقیق مورد استفاده در پژوهش، پیمایشی مبتنی بر روش همبستگی است. ابزار تحقیق، پرسش‌نامۀ محقق‌ساخته است که برای تعیین اعتبار پرسش‌نامه از تکنیک اعتبار صوری و اعتبار محتوا با استعانت از تکنیک ضریب نسبی روایی محتوا استفاده شد. بعد از طراحی پرسش‌نامه و اجرای پایلوت بین 30 پاسخ‌گو، میزان پایایی سؤالات با استفاده از ضریب آلفای کرونباخ 82/0 محاسبه شد. جامعۀ آماری این پژوهش شامل کلیۀ زنان و مردان 30 تا 54 ساله ساکن شهر گرگان که تعداد آن‌ها بر‌اساس سرشماری سال 1390 برابر با 146238 نفر می‌باشد. حجم نمونه بر‌اساس فرمول کوکران 384 نفر تعیین شد. برای انتخاب نمونه‌ها از روش نمونه‌گیری تصادفی چند‌مرحله‌ای مورد استفاده قرار گرفت. نتایج پژوهش نشان داد که بین سرمایۀ فرهنگی عینیت‌یافته با تحرک اجتماعی میان‌نسلی افراد در شهرگرگان، در سطح ضریب اطمینان 95 درصد رابطه وجود ندارد. تفاوت جنسیتی در میزان تحرک اجتماعی وجود دارد که به نفع مردان است. میزان تحرک اجتماعی پاسخ‌گویان، 6/8 درصد دارای تحرک میان‌نسلی نزولی، 24 درصد دارای تحرک میان‌نسلی افقی و 4/67 درصد دارای تحرک میان‌نسلی صعودی بوده‌اند.

Sibling Correlations and Intergenerational Mobility in Latin America

The article presents the structure of source-oriented electronic databases created on the basis of personified mass sources that contain information about the population of Tambov in 1896-1917. The features and possibilities of using mass primary sources for the study of social stratification and mobility of the propertied strata of the population of the provincial center in the late 19th - early 20th centuries are analyzed. Methods of complex processing of electronic databases on social stratification and mobility of the population of a Russian provincial city in the late 19th - early 20th centuries are characterized. The scientific novelty of the study consists of the use of information technologies to implement the method of social identification of the elite and middle layers of the provincial Russian city in the late 19th - early 20th centuries, the basis of which is the approaches and methods of theories of multidimensional stratification and social mobility. The information potential of the bases made it possible to conduct social ranking, analyze the social mobility of the elite and the middle strata of the provincial center in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. The presented methods and technologies for the creation and complex processing of source-oriented databases on the problems of social stratification and mobility of the elite and middle strata of Tambov in the late 19th - early 20th centuries can be used to study social processes in relation to other settlements, chronological periods, class-social and professional groups of the population.

Social mobility is the movement of individuals, families, households, or other categories of people within or between social strata in a society. Societies organized by social class, rather than caste, usually allow greater social mobility; in such societies, one’s ability to achieve a higher social status can depend on factors such as social connections, wealth, effort, and education. In order to study the dynamics of social processes, it is natural to start by looking at the movement of people between social classes. Since such moves are largely unpredictable at the individual level, it is necessary for a model to describe mechanism of movement in probabilistic terms. A distinction has to be made between intergenerational mobility and intra-generational mobility. The former refers to social mobility which reflects changes of social class from one generation to another. Intra-generational mobility refers to changes of classes which take place during an individual’s life span. This type of movement is called occupational or labor mobility since it is usually more directly concerned with occupations. Many deterministic and stochastic models have been developed to study social and occupational mobility situations in the different parts of the world.

户籍制度是中国社会一项基本的制度安排， 它把户口作为资源配置和利益分配的重要凭据， 对社会分层和流动产生了较大的影响。在改革开放近三十年后， 中国的户口还起不起作用， 以及起着怎样的作用？通过对综合社会调查数据的分析， 发现中国社会分层具有城乡户口差别和城市户口等级差别并存的特点， 户口转变和迁移的开放性程度与个人社会流动机会获得有正相关关系。市场转型虽带来了较多流动机会， 但户口等级差别以及户口对体制内流动所起的结构性影响依然存在。鉴于户籍制度的强粘附性生成了社会差别， 改革这一制度的基本方向是推行户口一元化和迁移自主化。 The household registration system has been a basic institutional arrangement in Chinese society. Under this system, registered residence (hukou) plays an important role in resource allocation and interest distribution, and thus exerts a significant impact on social stratification and mobility. After nearly three decades of reform and opening up, does it still play a role, and, if so, what is this role? Drawing on data from the China General Social Survey, we find that China's social stratification is characterized by the simultaneous existence of differentiation between urban and rural hukou and hierarchy within urban hukou; furthermore, there is a positive correlation between one's opportunities for social mobility and the possibility of changing and transferring one's hukou. Despite the increasing social mobility ensuing from market‐oriented transformation, the hukou hierarchy and its structural influence on mobility within the institutional framework persist. The strongly conglutinative nature of the household registration system has given rise to social disparities. The basic direction for reform of the system should be unification of hukou and free choice of movement from one place to another.

1. The Sociological Perspective. The Sociological Perspective. The Origins of Sociology. Sexism in Early Sociology. Sociology in North America. Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology. Doing Sociological Research. Research Methods. Ethics in Sociological Research. 2. Culture. What Is Culture? Components of Symbolic Culture. Many Cultural Worlds: Subcultures and Countercultures. Values in U.S. Society. Technology in the Global Village. 3. Socialization. What Is Human Nature? Socialization into the Self, Mind, and Emotions. Socialization into Gender. Agents of Socialization. Resocialization. Socialization Through the Life Course. Are We Prisoners of Socialization? 4. Social Structure and Social Interaction. Levels of Sociological Analysis. The Macrosociological Perspective: Social Structure. The Microsociological Perspective: Social Interaction in Everyday Life. The Need for Both Macrosociology and Microsociology. 5. Social Groups and Formal Organizations. Social Groups. Bureaucracies. Working for the Corporation. Group Dynamics. 6. Deviance and Social Control. What Is Deviance? The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective. The Functionalist Perspective. The Conflict Perspective. Reactions to Deviance. 7. Social Stratification in Global Perspective. An Overview of Social Stratification. What Determines Social Class? Why Is Social Stratification Universal? How Do Elites Maintain Stratification? Comparative Social Stratification. Global Stratification: Three Worlds. How the World's Nations Became Stratified. Maintaining Global Stratification. A Concluding Note. 8. Social Class in the United States. What Is Social Class? Sociological Models of Social Class. Consequences of Social Class. Social Mobility. Poverty. 9. Inequalities of Race and Ethnicity. Laying the Sociological Foundation. Theories of Prejudice. Global Patterns of Intergroup Relations. Race and Ethnic Relations in the United States. Looking Toward the Future. 10. Inequalities of Age and Gender. Inequalities of Gender. Issues of Sex and Gender. How Females Became a Minority Group. Gender Inequality in the United States. The Changing Face of Politics. Inequalities of Aging. Aging in Global Perspective. The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective. The Functionalist Perspective. The Conflict Perspective. Looking Toward the Future. 11. Politics and the Economy. Politics: Establishing Leadership. Power, Authority, and Violence. Types of Government. The U.S. Political System. Who Rules the United States? The Economy: Work in the Global Village. The Transformation of Economic Systems. World Economic Systems. Capitalism in a Global Economy. 12. Marriage and Family. Marriage and Family in Global Perspective. Marriage and Family in Theoretical Perspective. The Family Life Cycle. Diversity in U.S. Families. Trends in U.S. Families. Divorce and Remarriage. Two Sides of Family Life. The Future of Marriage and Family. 13. Education and Religion. Education: Transferring Knowledge and Skills. Education in Global Perspective. The Functionalist Perspective: Providing Social Benefits. The Conflict Perspective: Reproducing the Social Class Structure. The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective: Fulfilling Teacher Expectations. Problems in U.S. Education-And Their Solutions. Religion: Establishing Meaning. What Is Religion? The Functionalist Perspective. The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective. The Conflict Perspective. Religion and the Spirit of Capitalism. Types of Religious Groups. Religion in the United States. The Future of Religion. 14. Population and Urbanization. Population in Global Perspective. A Planet with No Space to Enjoy Life? Population Growth. Urbanization. The Development of Cities. City Life: Alienation and Community. Urban Problems and Social Policy. 15. Social Change: Technology, Social Movements, and the Environment. How Social Change Transforms Society. Theories and Processes of Social Change. How Technology Changes Society. Social Movements as a Source of Social Change. The Growth Machine Versus the Earth. ONLINE CHAPTER: The Sociology of Human Sexuality. What Does Sociology Have to Do with Sex? The Incest Taboo. Homosexuality. Heterosexuality. A Concluding Note.

This article deals with two vital components of a country's social structure: social stratification and social mobility. It examines the social structure of Guatemala, adapting for this purpose two approaches to social class that are often used in studies dealing with the issue. The aim is to delineate the Guatemalan social pyramid, showing not so much classes as rough strata based on employment data. Statistical analysis of data from a living conditions survey is used to provide information about social mobility with a view to illustrating educational and occupational mobility in the country. The results indicate a pyramid-shaped social structure and low educational and occupational mobility when children are compared with their parents. They also show that mobility opportunities differ between the sexes and between ethnic groups.

This article presents an attempt to define the framework and the possible guidelines for analyzing the influence of professional education on social stratification given the current conditions of social reality. The author points out that the structural changes in all social institutions (including professional education and the labor market), the fluidity and dynamism of modern social reality, and conserving a dichotomy of fluidity when speaking of the Russian context – rigidity, the expansion and inflation of professional education combined with the preservation of inequality when it comes to implementing educational trajectories – all of this makes studying the connection between social stratification, professional education and social mobility ever the more relevant. Researchers face the following acute questions: what sort of role is played by professional education in promoting or restricting an individual’s social mobility? How has the expansion and inflation of education redefined the selection and allocation of human capital? In which way does the connection change between social stratification, professional education and social mobility, what are the foundations, the sociological study tradition and the theoretical-methodological prospects for the future? In order to find answers, the author examines both traditional theoretical-methodological approaches, and ones that are new to sociology of education. The article substantiates the notion that structural-functional theory does not possess a comprehensive explanatory potential in the study of the socio-structural role of professional education in regards to social mobility. The author substantiates the following thesis from a conflict analysis standpoint: democratizing access to professional education does not mean the reduction of class inequality or the emergence of a society of equal opportunity. Within the paradigm of an activity-related approach in sociology of education, where education is viewed not just as a separate social institution, but as part of a larger system of social action and social inequality, the definitive role of motivation and proactiveness is emphasized, with them producing a positive effect when it comes to attaining higher professional status. The accelerating rate of change in society, the multidimensionality and polyvariance in implementing educational and professional trajectories in modern society indicate the need for a multidimensional evaluation of social mobility. In regards to the topic of education, and when it comes to analyzing the implementation of educational trajectories, professional education represents a vital condition and a necessary prerequisite for an individual to exercise social mobility both in terms of objective and subjective coordinates of mobility, and in regards to research methods and methodology, this demands synthesizing quantitative and qualitative research strategies, and, consequently, opens up new opportunities for interpreting results and perceiving social reality.

Intergenerational income equality involves in the intergenerational mobility. Moreover, higher education is always considered as key elements to stimulate intergenerational mobility. Thus, the ultimate goal of this study is to examine the relationship between intergenerational income mobility and higher education for three major groups, including urban residents, rural residents, and rural-urban migrants from a political economic perspective. Theoretically speaking, interactive autonomy-based Political Economic Theory has been utilized to elaborate the rationales of social and education stratification and solidification that implicitly impact the intergenerational income mobility for rural, urban and migrants’ families in contemporary China. Moreover, the findings from this study suggested that urban higher income group and rural higher income groups are significantly influenced by children’s length of education. In addition, father’s income has significantly impact on children’s income for urban higher income group, urban low-income group, rural high-income group, and rural low-income group. Moreover, father’s length of education has directly impact on children’s length of education for most of groups. Furthermore, father’s length of education has significant impact on father’s income for all groups. Additionally, based on the results from this study, relevant policy recommendations and suggestions have been provided to eliminate the gaps between intergenerational mobility and inequality of education access.

This review discusses historical studies of social mobility and stratification. The focus is on changes in social inequality and mobility in past societies and their determinants. It discusses major historical sources, approaches, and results in the fields of social stratification (ranks and classes in the past), marriage patterns by social class or social endogamy, intergenerational social mobility, and historical studies of the career.