Emission Testing of Flex Fuel Vehicles up to M100/E100: Upgradation of Existing Test Facility for Vehicles below 3.5-ton GVW for Testing Methanol or Ethanol Operated Vehicles

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Oils, which do not contain Molybdenum (Mo)-based friction modifiers, were aged in vehicle and engine fuel economy tests in order to determine if the different aging protocols caused similar changes in the physical and chemical properties of these oils. Vehicle and engine tests were found to cause similar changes in the high temperature high shear (HTHS) viscosities and boundary friction coefficients of oils. We also observed that the extent of oil oxidation, nitration and volatilization occurring in the vehicle tests could be duplicated by aging in the engine tests. The fuel economy performance of aged oils was also measured in engine tests and found to be highly dependent upon the aged oil's HTHS viscosity. However, we observed that an aged oil's boundary friction coefficient, by itself, did not correlate to an aged oil's fuel economy performance in the high temperature fuel economy measurement stages of engine tests.</div>

The European Union is aiming at increasing the market share of biofuels in order to improve the security of supply of transport fuel and to reduce CO2 emissions. The target is to reach a 10% of fuels from renewable sources on energy basis in the transport sector by 2020 and biofuels represent one of the most important options. Bioethanol and biodiesel represent the only biofuels currently available on the market in big quantities and technologically mature. Bioethanol is probably the most broadly employed alternative fuel in the world (mainly in Brazil, USA and Sweden). An experimental program was carried out at the JRC to investigate the emissions of a flexible fuel vehicle using different ethanol/gasoline blends. In this report we will focus on the effect of fuel ethanol content on exhaust emissions from a Flexible Fuel vehicle and on some issues related to the use of bioethanol as transport fuel. The test vehicle was a passenger car currently marketed in Europe and one of the most popular models belonging to the flexible fuel vehicle category. Emission tests were carried out both following the European certification procedure (NEDC cycle) and using a US driving cycle (US 06). Regulated and unregulated emissions were measured. Three different fuels have been tested: a standard commercial summer gasoline marketed in Italy used as base fuel and two gasoline/ethanol blends, which have been obtained by splash blending ethanol in the standard gasoline. The two gasoline/ethanol blends contained respectively 10% ethanol (E10) and 85% ethanol (E85). In general the repeatability of emission measurements was not very good; only with E85 the measured emission levels were very repeatable. The poor repeatability might be linked to the very sophisticated engine management system which modifies the engine settings depending on the ethanol content of the fuel. Nevertheless sound conclusions can be drawn for the NEDC cycle while for the US 06 this is more difficult due to the limited number of tests performed. The results have shown that over the European NEDC cycle the vehicle complies with the Euro 4 emission standards with all the fuel with the only exception of CO with fuel E10. In some cases the CO value measured with fuel E10 resulted to be slightly higher than the limit (1 g/km). CO and HC emissions measured over the NEDC cycle with fuel E10 resulted to be higher than with the other two fuels. On the contrary, E85 was the least emitting fuel as far as these emissions are concerned. The influence of fuel composition was instead almost negligible for NOx emissions. A statically significant increase of NOx emissions was noticed only in the case of E85 and only over the extra-urban part of the NEDC cycle. CO2 emissions were reduced by about 4-6% with fuel E85 both over the NEDC and over the US06 cycle. Similar trends have been found in a recent, major Canadian study, with the only exception that CO emissions were slightly reduced with E10 – a finding that may be explained by the different test cycles. While particulate emissions measured over the NEDC cycle were very low, the PM levels turned out to be quite high over the US 06 cycle. In this case the emissions were comparable to those of a Euro 3 diesel car. This might be due to the very aggressive driving pattern of the US 06 cycle which contains very hard accelerations. In these conditions the engine is likely to work in open loop and with a very rich mixture. The most significant effect of ethanol in the fuel was observed for emissions of carbonylic compounds. This effect increased with increasing ethanol concentration. In particular for acetaldehyde E85 resulted in a more than twenty fold increase in emissions. This represents the main concern associated with the use of flexible fuel vehicles. Comparably with HC emissions, from the speciation of VOCs emissions the fuel E10 resulted to be the most emitting fuel while E85 the least emitting one. E85 resulted in a reduction of 57% of the sum of the speciated VOCs compared to standard gasoline, but with an enrichment of C2 compounds. Emissions of toxic compounds such as benzene and 1,3- butadiene also decreased when E85 was used instead of standard gasoline. Contributions from ethene and propene prevailed regarding the potential of ozone formation.

During the development of a large (270 ton) underwater remote-controlled vehicle, it became essential for the control design that tests be conducted to determine the steady state hydrodynamic drag characteristics of the submerged vehicle. Such a large complex shape is difficult, if not impossible, to model with the correct Reynolds number in water because of the huge drag and power requirements. Testing of this vehicle was done in a wind tunnel with almost exact Reynolds number correlation. Air can be used for testing of underwater vehicles as long as the fluid is reasonably incompressible (low speeds), there is no free surface and no cavitation; it is also advantageous if the flow is not critical. If the model is sized to conveniently fit into the wind tunnel test section, the required air velocity to reach the appropriate Reynolds number is within the approximate incompressible range (approximately 330 ft/sec) and the test forces are within the test facility balance range, then the vehicle can be conveniently tested in a wind tunnel. This particular vehicle was tested at various roll, yaw and pitch angles to evaluate six-component forces and moments. Reynolds number effects, support tare and vehicle configuration changes were studied. The results of the test provided invaluable information for an accurate evaluation of the vehicle maneuverability and handling characteristics. Larger than expected roll moments and lift forces were encountered and compensating vehicle control design changes were made. In conclusion, wind tunnels offer an excellent alternative and, in many cases, a better alternative than testing the vehicle in water or relying solely on an analytical solution. INTRODUCTION The 270 ton aluminum Submersible Pipeline Repair Vehicle (SPRV) is a twin hulled, variable ballast submersible with 9-foot diameter hulls, 156 feet long, four bridge beams of syntactic foam and aluminum, six 8-foot diameter Kort nozzle thrusters, and various tooling and electronics. This vehicle is being developed for Shell Development Company. A floating model of the vehicle is shown in Figure 1. The purpose of the SPRV is to repair deepwater pipelines. It is remote controlled via an umbilical from the surface. The SPRV is designed to operate in a 1.5 knot bottom current and, since it docks parallel to the pipeline, it must be able to hover at any orientation (yaw angle) to this current. For proper design of the control, maneuverability, placement of the thrusters and thruster power requirements, the loads caused by the 1.5 knot current had to be known. There are six load components of concern: frontal drag, thwartship drag, lift, yawing moment, pitching moment and rolling moment.

Transition metals have emerged and have begun to be widely researched as alternative materials in the manufacture of metallic catalytic converters (MCC). The selection of transition metals is based on the availability of abundant materials in the market, besides that the price of transition metals tends to be cheaper when compared to PGM. Therefore, through this study, an analysis of the effect of chrome-plated copper MCC (CuCr) was carried out on CO and HC exhaust emissions. Emission testing is carried out under two conditions. The first condition is the condition where the test vehicle still uses a standard exhaust, while in the second condition the test vehicle uses a modified exhaust equipped with MCC CuCr technology. The test vehicle used was the 2005 Honda Supra Fit. The emission testing process was carried out based on the SNI 09-71118.1-2005 standard which was then compared with the Regulation of the Minister of the Environment, Number 05 of 2006. The research findings show that MCC CuCr is proven to be able to reduce exhaust emissions by an average reduction of 24% for CO emissions and 30% for HC emissions. The emission test results show that the measured CO emission is 1.68% Vol while the CO emission threshold is 5.5% Vol. Meanwhile, the measured HC emission is 1719 ppmVol while the HC emission threshold is 2400 ppmVol. Therefore, it can be concluded that MCC CuCr passed the emission test in accordance with the Regulation of the State Minister of the Environment number 5 of 2006.

The electronically controlled diesel engine was converted to dual fuel engine system. Test engine was set up for investigating the power output, thermal efficiency and emissions. ND 13-mode tests were employed for the engine test cycle. The emission result of dual fuel mode meets Euro-4 (K2006) regulation and the engine performance of dual fuel engine was comparable to the performance of diesel engine. To estimate economical efficiency, test vehicles have been operated on a certain driving route repeatedly. Fuel economy, maximum driving distance per refueling and driveability were examined on the road including free ways. Developed vehicle can be operated over 500 km with dual fuel mode and shows 80% of diesel substitution ratio. Driveability of dual fuel mode is similar with that of diesel mode.

Design and operational aspect of LOX/LH2 propulsion system of reusable vehicle testing (RVT)

<div class="htmlview paragraph">The “Truck in the Park” project was a jointly funded research project which demonstrated the benefits of the use of biodiesel in a tourism related industry. The National Park Service (NPS) operated a truck in Yellowstone National Park (YNP) for 149,408 km (92,838 miles) on 100% biodiesel fuel produced by the University of Idaho. Participants in this project included Montana Department of Environmental Quality, Wyoming Department of Commerce, NPS, Department of Energy's Regional Biomass Energy Program, Koch Agri-Services, Dodge Truck, Cummins Engine Company, J.R. Simplot, Western States Caterpillar, University of California at Davis, and the University of Idaho.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This summary report details the fuel production, engine performance, durability, and engine emissions tests performed on the test vehicle.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The test vehicle was a 1995 Dodge 2500 four-wheel-drive pickup with a Cummins B 5.9 liter turbocharged, direct injected, diesel engine. Chassis dynamometer tests showed that the vehicle did not experience a reduction in power over time. Oil analyses, compression, injector tests, and engine and fuel pump teardown inspections also indicate that the engine did not experience excessive wear or deterioration as a result of using biodiesel as a fuel. The durability was considered equivalent or better than diesel fuel. Emissions tests were performed at the beginning (1995) and end (1998) of the project. Results from these tests indicated HC and CO decreased and PM increased as the percentage of rapeseed ethyl ester (REE) was increased. NO<sub>x</sub> generally decreased as the percentage of REE was increased. Fuel use increased by 14% from 1995 to 1998. Cold start emissions data was limited, but it shows that HC, CO, and PM seemed to increase more for diesel cold starts than biodiesel cold starts compared to hot starts with the same fuel. 149,408 km (92,838 miles) of use with 100% biodiesel did not affect the efficiency of the catalytic converter.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Due to the need to properly quantify vehicle emissions in real world operation, Real Driving Emissions (RDE) test procedures will be used for measuring gaseous emissions on new EURO 6 vehicles.at the RDE 1 & 2: Commission Regulation (EU) 2016/427 of 10 March 2016 amending Regulation (EC) No 692/2008 as regards emissions from light passenger and commercial vehicles. Updated regulations have been enhanced to define RDE tests boundaries and data analysis procedures, in order to provide an accurate way to obtain representative results. The boundary conditions defined for vehicle testing include external atmospheric temperature, which can range from 0°C to around 30°C, for moderate conditions and -7°C up to 35°C for extended conditions in RDE tests. As a result of this range of possible test ambient temperature, pollutant emissions and energy consumption can vary considerably. Since the cold start phenomenon occurs in internal combustion engine (ICE) powered vehicles before the ICE reaches its most effective operation temperature, it affects both fuel consumption (due to higher heat losses) and pollutant emissions (mainly due to low exhaust temperature below activating temperature for after-treatment devices like SCR). This is an issue relevant in regular daily operations of a vehicle, which will also pose uncertainties in RDE tests. Consequently, this work studies the effect of external environmental temperature in RDE tests, focusing on the analysis of the cold-start period in energy consumption and NO<sub>x</sub> emissions. Two vehicles (one diesel and one gasoline) were monitored, covering external temperatures from circa 1°C to 17°C (considered ranges of 5°C up to 15°C) in Lisbon, Portugal. A Portable Emissions Measurement System (PEMS) was used to collect 1 Hz data on vehicle dynamics, road topography, engine data and exhaust gas composition. Data collected on both powertrain configurations is compared and analyzed using European Commission proposed method for RDE tests, as well as other methods to observe the impact of the cold-start phenomena in the normal day-to-day usage of vehicles. For the determination of cold-start periods, coolant temperature data was used as proxy to determine cold and normal operation. Results indicate that the initial ambient temperature have impacts in the duration of the cold-start period during a RDE test but not as relevant as expected, mostly at low temperatures compared to higher temperatures. NO<sub>x</sub> emissions can be around 30% higher in near 5°C temperatures for the diesel vehicle tested when compared with the other temperatures range. For the gasoline vehicle tested, the effect of the ambient outdoor temperature is not as significant as in diesel vehicles.</div></div>

Recent measurements and modeling of primary exhaust particulate matter (PM) emissions from both gasoline and diesel-powered motor vehicles suggest that many vehicles produce PM at rates substantially higher than assumed in the current EPA PM emission factor model, known as “PART5.” The discrepancy between actual versus modeled PM emissions is generally attributed to inadequate emissions data and outdated assumptions in the PART5 model. This paper presents a study with the objective of developing an in-house tool (a modified PART5 model) for the Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission (TNRCC) to use for estimating motor vehicle exhaust PM emissions in Texas. The work included chassis dynamometer emissions testing on several heavy-duty diesel vehicles at the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI), analysis of the exhaust PM emissions and other regulated pollutants (i.e., HC,CO,NOx), review of related studies and exhaust PM emission data obtained from literature of similar types of light and heavy-duty vehicle tests, a review of the current PART5 model, and analysis of the associated emission deterioration rates. Exhaust PM emissions data obtained from the vehicle testing at SwRI and other similar studies (covering a relatively large number and wide range of vehicles) were merged, and finally, used to modify the PART5 model. The modified model, which was named PART5-TX1, was then used to estimate new exhaust PM emission factors for in-use motor vehicles. Modifications to the model are briefly described, along with emissions test results from the heavy-duty diesel-powered vehicles tested at SwRI. Readers interested in a detailed understanding of the techniques used to modify the PART5 model are referred to the final project report to TNRCC (Eastern Research Group 2000).

<div class="htmlview paragraph">A major problem in Vehicle Exhaust Emissions and Fuel Economy Testing has been the variability in the measurements. An extensive test program was undertaken to identify and quantify the sources of variation. The test program was designed using four test vehicles on five CTE-50 Clayton Dynamometer cells whereby four repeats for each combination were provided for a total of 80 CVS-C/H Emissions and F.E. Tests. During each test a total of 23 test variables were monitored and recorded in real time. Nine other variables were also observed for a total of 32 variables: 5 vehicle related variables, 16 engine related, 4 dynamometer variables, 3 driver related, and 4 environment variables.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The paper reports various results of this experiment and describes an instrumentation package that was developed for “on-line” data recording. A brief discussion of the software used for “off-line” processing of the voluminous data as well as several statistical analysis techniques which were developed especially for identifying and quantifying the sources of variation, are included. The benefits which result from reduced test variability, namely lower test cost because of improved test efficiency and increased confidence in results, are pointed out.</div>

More electric and all electric aircraft were already discussed in the eighties of the last century, but recent political and ecological issues now reinforce the electrification of aircraft and engine systems. The development of electric machines and components with increasing power to weight ratio enables the installation of power optimized electric accessories instead of pneumatic and hydraulic systems in order to raise overall efficiency and specific fuel consumption of the engine. While pneumatic and hydraulic components are driven by the aircraft engine, a major challenge is in the supply of electric energy. Storage systems lack in reliability and light weight, fuel cell technology is limited to small aircraft and needs further development in various technical disciplines. An appropriate option is the generation of electric power by engine integrated generators. Performance calculations state increased efficiency by means of split spool power offtake, but have not been validated by a real twin-spool demonstrator yet. At the ground test facility of the Institute of Jet Propulsion a demonstrator engine has been set up for detailed research on the influence of power extraction from a Larzac 04 C5 jet engine. To facilitate the test vehicle for power offtake of two spools the starter-generator has been complemented by a second generator, which is installed in front of the compressor inlet. It is axially connected to the low pressure spool by a coupling and a special flange mounted onto the low pressure spool. Several subsystems enabling for electric power offtake are integrated into the facilities’ data acquisition system (DAQ) and communication structure. The added components influence the engine in various ways: They manipulate power balance of the spools and alter the inlet pressure distribution and the compressor aerodynamics. Additionally the internal flow distribution is changed as well as the vibration characteristics. Before starting with extensive more electric engine (MEE) power offtake test campaigns, all systems need to be installed and tested successively. This paper describes the test facility and fundamental more electric engine subsystems, with special focus put on instrumentation and system communication. A first function test demonstrates the operability of the engine after the modification of the low pressure spool. In a further step the influence of the inlet modification onto the compressor inlet aerodynamics, total mass flow, and vibrations of the test vehicle is analyzed. The vibration characteristics are vital for the coupling functionality, which is demonstrated subsequently. Presenting the load system check, special focus is given to communication, load definition, and electromagnetic compatibility. Comparisons to component performance predictions and to the performance of the original engine configuration are drawn for all tests and new limits for the operation of the new more electric configuration are defined. Finally, first data of power offtake of two spools is presented to demonstrate the operability of the MEE test vehicle.

<div class="htmlview paragraph">A test facility has been developed utilizing engine dynamometers to age catalyst. The engine operating parameters and thus the input to the catalyst were set to duplicate the environment of the catalyst during vehicle test on the Federal Appendix D Durability Schedule. Results from the experimental car durability test have shown that the primary cause of catalyst performance loss on this schedule has been due to contamination build-up on the catalyst surface. Catalyst aged on the engine dynamometer facility has shown very good performance loss correlation to similar catalyst aged in the vehicle test. This correlation has allowed the use of this engine dynamometer facility to investigate various catalyst parameter effects on the durability performance of the catalyst.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Powertrain drivability evaluation and calibration is an important part of vehicle development to enhance the customer experience. This step mainly takes place on vehicle testing very late in the product development cycle, and is associated with a considerable amount of prototype, test facility, human resource and time cost. Design change options at this stage are also very limited. To reduce the development cost, a model based computer aided engineering (CAE) method is introduced and combined with hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation technology. The HIL simulation method offers a possibility for drivability prediction and development in early phase of product cycle. This article describes the drivability HIL simulation process under development in Ford. The process consists of real time capable multi-domain CAE model integration, powertrain control module (PCM) and HIL simulator interface development and drivability HIL simulation. The article illustrates that this efficient new approach can be achieved with existing fast developing CAE and HIL technology. Results comparison between HIL simulation and vehicle test is presented.</div></div>

The objective of the study was to assess the impact of Saflex1 S-series Solar Control PVB (polyvinyl butyral) configurations on conventional vehicle fuel economy and electric vehicle (EV) range. The approach included outdoor vehicle thermal soak testing, RadTherm cool-down analysis, and vehicle simulations. Thermal soak tests were conducted at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory's Vehicle Testing and Integration Facility in Golden, Colorado. The test results quantified interior temperature reductions and were used to generate initial conditions for the RadTherm cool-down analysis. The RadTherm model determined the potential reduction in air-conditioning (A/C) capacity, which was used to calculate the A/C load for the vehicle simulations. The vehicle simulation tool identified the potential reduction in fuel consumption or improvement in EV range between a baseline and modified configurations for the city and highway drive cycles. The thermal analysis determined a potential 4.0% reduction in A/C power for the Saflex Solar PVB solar control configuration. The reduction in A/C power improved the vehicle range of EVs and fuel economy of conventional vehicles and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles.

Current and future requirements in the verification and validation of the performance of modern aircraft engines lead to continuously increasing requirements on the transient performance capability and flexibility of Altitude Test Facilities (ATF). These requirements have been investigated via numerical simulations of a medium size turbofan and a modern core engine. The simulations using the turbofan engine, document a significant influence of the boundary conditions supplied by the ATF on the dynamic behaviour of bypass engines. Variations in engine acceleration times and compressor stability have been identified. This leads to stability requirements for entry conditions at Fan face and ambient conditions at the nozzle exit. The especially demanding operability tests with core engines, challenge ATF systems due to the additional need to simulate the behaviour of low pressure components. It turns out that the interaction between test vehicle and ATF, in both cases, requires special attention and great care in the design of the ATF control system. Therefore a closed loop simulation model including, ATF, ATF controls system, test vehicle and vehicle control has been developed in order to assess and evaluate the integrated ATF - test vehicle behaviour in advance of the test. The integration of the test vehicle and vehicle control into the modular simulation tool is described. The standardized interface allows integrating different vehicle types without a lot of effort. The application of the simulation in a core engine ATF test is described as an example. The observed vehicle - ATF interaction with and without control is discussed.