Elephant Engineers: Unravelling how Elephants Influence Mammalian Communities in Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa

Protecting plants from elephants: botanical reserve scenarios within the Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa

Population extinction evaluations, based on the model developed by Dennis et al. (1991) that did not take density dependence into account and that were based on census data, suggest that many of the herbivore species in Addo Elephant National Park (AENP) are vulnerable to local extinction. As a result of low abundance, grysbok and bushpig populations are likely to become extinct within the next ten years. Species such as the common duiker, eland, buffalo, ostrich and bushbuck are likely to go extinct within the next 60 years, whereas populations such as the black rhino, kudu and red hartebeest appear less vulnerable and display an insignificant probability of local extinction. This conclusion was supported by the absence of discernible density-dependence effects in all but one of the species included in the analyses. In addition, population variance parameters (F2 of herbivore species from AENP, were larger than those recorded from the Kruger National Park and various elephant populations from South Africa. These data suggest that strict adherence to the management objectives, by managing for increasing mega-herbivore populations (elephant, black rhino) in AENP may have been responsible for increasing the risk of local extinction of other herbivore populations. Consequently, should the objectives of AENP be amended to incorporate broader biodiversity objectives, the recent extension of AENP, which increased habitat heterogeneity in the Park, may prove timely.

Tourism is often discussed as a pathway to local economic development especially in the Global South. Although much discussion surrounds upliftment via job creation and the direct income generated from tourism enterprises, there is increasing focus on the benefits of tourism supply chains for local communities. Existing research demonstrates the potential role of tourism supply chains to uplift local businesses, particularly small medium and micro-enterprises (SMMEs). Nevertheless, there are many barriers which face local SMMEs in accessing tourism supply chains particularly in the Global South. This paper seeks to investigate the relationship between a major state-owned tourism asset in South Africa, Addo Elephant National Park, and SMME development. Using qualitative interviews with stakeholders within the Addo Elephant National Park, local tourism businesses as well as local SMMEs, the challenges faced by these enterprises in entering the tourism supply chain are highlighted as well as the tenuous linkages between local SMMEs and state-owned tourism assets.

Free-ranging African elephants live in a fission-fusion society, at the centre of which is the matriarch. Matriarchs are generally older females that guide their families to resources and co-ordinate group defense. While much is known about elephant society, knowledge is generally lacking about how age affects the physiology of wild elephants. Investigation of the ovarian activity of free-ranging elephants could provide insight into the reproductive ageing process, with implications for population management. Faecal samples were collected from 46 individuals ranging in age from 14 to 60 years for a 2-year period, and progestagen metabolite analyses were used to examine relationships between social status, age, season, and ovarian activity in female elephants in Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa. Social status was the strongest predictor of faecal progestagen metabolite concentrations in non-pregnant elephants, with grand matriarchs (n = 6) having the lowest values compared with matriarchs (n = 21) and non-matriarch females (n = 19). Likewise, social status and age were the strongest predictors of faecal progestagen metabolite concentrations in pregnant elephants (n = 27). The number of years since a non-pregnant female gave birth to her last calf (post-partum duration) was longer for older females with a higher social status, as well as during the dry season. Our results indicate that social standing and age of elephants are related to reproductive function, and that older females exhibit reductions in ovarian capacity. These results expand our understanding of reproduction and fertility throughout an elephant's lifespan, and the factors that impact gonadal function in free-ranging females. Given that possible over-abundance of elephants in areas such as Addo Elephant National Park is fuelling the debate over how best to manage these populations, knowledge about the reproductive potential of high-ranking females can provide managers with biological data to identify the best candidates for controlling growth through translocation or contraception.

The results of a survey of the reptiles and amphibians of the Addo Elephant National Park (AENP) are presented. A total of 49 species, comprising 16 amphibians, 14 lizards, 15 snakes and 4 chelonians, occur in the AENP. Observations on the biology and distribution of these species in the AENP are given, and the relative composition and diversity is compared with the herpetofauna of the surrounding eastern Cape and the more distant Kruger National Park. The zoogeographic affinities of the AENP herpetofauna are similar to those of the surrounding eastern Cape (i.e. Cape Temperate 46,9, Temperate- Transitional 16,3, Eastern Tropical Transitional 10,2, Western Tropical Transitional 8,2, Tropical East Coast Littoral 2,0 and Temperate Wideranging 16,3). Resource partitioning among the AENP herpetofauna is discussed and the conservation status of the species summarised. A list of species that may still be collected within the AENP is included.

Although elephants are recognized as keystone species, the mechanisms of their impacts on biodiversity and community structure are rarely identified. In the Addo Elephant National Park (AENP), South Africa, elephant Loxodonta africana herbivory is apparently responsible for a significant reduction in plant richness, especially among the regionally rare and endemic small succulent shrubs and geophytes (Important Plants). We used faecal analysis to investigate the utilization of Important Plants in elephant diet in the AENP. Ninety plant species were identified in the diet. Only 14 of the 77 (c. 18%) Important Plants previously thought particularly vulnerable to elephant browsing occurred in the diet, while at least 6% of species for which there are data were avoided. This refutes the generally held belief that elephant herbivory is the major driver of decline among Important Plants, and emphasizes the likely contribution of other mechanisms (e.g. knock‐on effects, trampling, zoochory, etc.) to this phenomenon. The accurate prediction of impacts caused by elephants in the AENP and elsewhere, therefore requires an understanding of these previously marginalized mechanisms. By demonstrating appropriate cause‐and‐effect relationships between elephants and ecosystem change, we will be able to move beyond assuming that all the observed changes are due to elephant herbivory.

A Temporal Analysis of Elephant-Induced Thicket Degradation in Addo Elephant National Park, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Journal of ZoologyVolume 277, Issue 2 p. 108-110 Evidence-based conservation management of elephants: the case of the Important Plants in Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa M. Landman, M. Landman Department of Zoology, Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Port Elizabeth, South AfricaSearch for more papers by this authorG. I. H. Kerley, G. I. H. Kerley Department of Zoology, Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Port Elizabeth, South AfricaSearch for more papers by this authorD. S. Schoeman, D. S. Schoeman Department of Zoology, Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Port Elizabeth, South Africa *Current address: School of Biological and Conservation Sciences, Howard College, University of KwaZulu-Natal, George Campbell Building, Durban 4041, South Africa.Search for more papers by this author M. Landman, M. Landman Department of Zoology, Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Port Elizabeth, South AfricaSearch for more papers by this authorG. I. H. Kerley, G. I. H. Kerley Department of Zoology, Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Port Elizabeth, South AfricaSearch for more papers by this authorD. S. Schoeman, D. S. Schoeman Department of Zoology, Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Port Elizabeth, South Africa *Current address: School of Biological and Conservation Sciences, Howard College, University of KwaZulu-Natal, George Campbell Building, Durban 4041, South Africa.Search for more papers by this author First published: 23 January 2009 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00545.x Correspondence Marietjie Landman, Department of Zoology, Centre for African Conservation Ecology, PO Box 77000, Port Elizabeth 6031, South Africa. Tel: +27 41 504 2493; Fax: +27 86 617 3288Email: [email protected] Editor: Nigel Bennett Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Volume277, Issue2February 2009Pages 108-110 RelatedInformation

The reduced cost of next-generation sequencing (NGS) has allowed researchers to generate nuclear and mitochondrial genome data to gain deeper insights into the phylogeography, evolutionary history and biology of non-model species. While the Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer caffer) has been well-studied across its range with traditional genetic markers over the last 25 years, researchers are building on this knowledge by generating whole genome, population-level data sets to improve understanding of the genetic composition and evolutionary history of the species. Using publicly available NGS data, we assembled 40 Cape buffalo mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes) from four protected areas in South Africa, expanding the geographical range and almost doubling the number of mitogenomes available for this species. Coverage of the mitogenomes ranged from 154 to 1036X. Haplotype and nucleotide diversity for Kruger National Park (n = 15) and Mokala National Park (n = 5) were similar to diversity levels in southern and eastern Africa. Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park (n = 15) had low levels of genetic diversity, with only four haplotypes detected, reflecting its past bottleneck. Addo Elephant National Park (n = 5) had the highest nucleotide diversity of all populations across Africa, which was unexpected, as it is known to have low nuclear diversity. This diversity was driven by a highly divergent mitogenome from one sample, which was subsequently identified in another sample via Sanger sequencing of the cytochrome b gene. Using a fossil-calibrated phylogenetic analysis, we estimated that this lineage diverged from all other Cape buffalo lineages approximately 2.51 million years ago. We discuss several potential sources of this mitogenome but propose that it most likely originated through introgressive hybridisation with an extinct buffalo species, either S. acoelotus or S. antiquus. We conclude by discussing the conservation consequences of this finding for the Addo Elephant National Park population, proposing careful genetic management to prevent inbreeding depression while maintaining this highly unique diversity.

Evaluation of alternative techniques used to estimate elephant population sizes is important in order to assess the accuracy of the results obtained, upon which management decisions may be based. Data from annual helicopter surveys carried out in the Addo Elephant National Park (1978–97) are compared with registration counts obtained from intensive ground surveys in which all elephants within the park are individually known. On average, total population size estimated in aerial surveys is 8.0% lower than registration counts (n1997 = 251), aerial calf (< 1 year) counts are 48.8% lower than registration counts, and aerial carcass counts are 50% below the total number of deaths documented in ground surveys. Registration counts provide more accurate demographic data than aerial surveys, the results of which are shown to vary widely and unpredictably, thus compromising their value. Where population estimates rely exclusively on aerial surveys, replicate counts are recommended in order to generate confidence intervals.

No abstract available.

IntroductionProtected areas (PAs) are central to global biodiversity conservation as they preserve nature, ecosystems, and cultural values. In South Africa, PAs were historically governed through top-down, exclusionary models rooted in colonial legacies that prioritized ecological protection over community rights and knowledge. This approach limited local access, fostered resentment, and increased management challenges such as poaching. Subsequently, conservation discourse has shifted toward participatory governance, community-based natural resource management (CBNRM), and co-management to promote more equitable and sustainable outcomes. This study explores the extent and nature of local community participation in environmental conservation at Addo Elephant National Park in South Africa, using the lens of Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM). MethodThis was a qualitative case study research, which used purposive and convenient sampling techniques to recruit a sample of 34 participants. Interviews, focus groups and field observations were used to collect data from the participants, which was then thematically analysed.ResultsFindings reveal a tripartite model of community engagement: structured involvement through local NGOs, government-led initiatives such as the Extended Public Works Programme, and isolated voluntary actions driven by cultural values. DiscussionWhile formal participation programmes provide economic incentives that mobilize participation, individual efforts, particularly among women, reflect a deep-rooted, intrinsic commitment to environmental stewardship. The study concludes that sustainable conservation requires an integrated approach that combines institutional support with recognition of informal, culturally embedded practices.

Determining the age of individuals in a population can lead to a better understanding of population dynamics through age structure analysis and estimation of age-specific fecundity and survival rates. Shoulder height has been used to accurately assign age to free-ranging African savanna elephants. However, back length may provide an analog measurable in aerial-based surveys. We assessed the relationship between back length and age for known-age elephants in Amboseli National Park, Kenya, and Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa. We also compared age- and sex-specific back lengths between these populations and compared adult female back lengths across 11 widely dispersed populations in five African countries. Sex-specific Von Bertalanffy growth curves provided a good fit to the back length data of known-age individuals. Based on back length, accurate ages could be assigned relatively precisely for females up to 23 years of age and males up to 17. The female back length curve allowed more precise age assignment to older females than the curve for shoulder height does, probably because of divergence between the respective growth curves. However, this did not appear to be the case for males, but the sample of known-age males was limited to ≤27 years. Age- and sex-specific back lengths were similar in Amboseli National Park and Addo Elephant National Park. Furthermore, while adult female back lengths in the three Zambian populations were generally shorter than in other populations, back lengths in the remaining eight populations did not differ significantly, in support of claims that growth patterns of African savanna elephants are similar over wide geographic regions. Thus, the growth curves presented here should allow researchers to use aerial-based surveys to assign ages to elephants with greater precision than previously possible and, therefore, to estimate population variables.

Animals and humans regularly make trade-offs between competing objectives. In Addo Elephant National Park (AENP), elephants (Loxodonta africana) trade off selection of resources, while managers balance tourist desires with conservation of elephants and rare plants. Elephant resource selection has been examined in seasonal savannas, but is understudied in aseasonal systems like AENP. Understanding elephant selection may suggest ways to minimise management trade-offs. We evaluated how elephants select vegetation productivity, distance to water, slope and terrain ruggedness across time in AENP and used this information to suggest management strategies that balance the needs of tourists and biodiversity. Resource selection functions with time-interacted covariates were developed for female elephants, using three data sets of daily movement to capture circadian and annual patterns of resource use. Results were predicted in areas of AENP currently unavailable to elephants to explore potential effects of future elephant access. Elephants displayed dynamic resource selection at daily and annual scales to meet competing requirements for resources. In summer, selection patterns generally conformed to those seen in savannas, but these relationships became weaker or reversed in winter. At daily scales, resource selection in the morning differed from that of midday and afternoon, likely reflecting trade-offs between acquiring sufficient forage and water. Dynamic selection strategies exist even in an aseasonal system, with both daily and annual patterns. This reinforces the importance of considering changing resource availability and trade-offs in studies of animal selection.Conservation implications: Guiding tourism based on knowledge of elephant habitat selection may improve viewing success without requiring increased elephant numbers. If AENP managers expand elephant habitat to reduce density, our model predicts where elephant use may concentrate and where botanical reserves may be needed to protect rare plants from elephant impacts.

Simple SummaryAfrican savanna elephants are highly social and exhibit a complex vocal communication system. They use a low-frequency contact call (termed ‘rumble’) to maintain social contact over long distances. As sound travels through the environment, however, its intensity level decreases. We used specialized computer software to manipulate acoustic components in male rumbles and simulated different body sizes (large and small). The rumbles were broadcasted and re-recorded at different distances at the Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa. This propagation experiment enabled us to investigate which acoustic components and information content can be transmitted efficiently up to 1.5 km. The results confirm that male rumbles potentially encode information about body size, yet transmission success decreased with distance. Our findings inform on how the environment can influence propagation of savanna elephant rumbles and what kind of information might be transmitted successfully over distance.African savanna elephants live in dynamic fission–fusion societies and exhibit a sophisticated vocal communication system. Their most frequent call-type is the ‘rumble’, with a fundamental frequency (which refers to the lowest vocal fold vibration rate when producing a vocalization) near or in the infrasonic range. Rumbles are used in a wide variety of behavioral contexts, for short- and long-distance communication, and convey contextual and physical information. For example, maturity (age and size) is encoded in male rumbles by formant frequencies (the resonance frequencies of the vocal tract), having the most informative power. As sound propagates, however, its spectral and temporal structures degrade progressively. Our study used manipulated and resynthesized male social rumbles to simulate large and small individuals (based on different formant values) to quantify whether this phenotypic information efficiently transmits over long distances. To examine transmission efficiency and the potential influences of ecological factors, we broadcasted and re-recorded rumbles at distances of up to 1.5 km in two different habitats at the Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa. Our results show that rumbles were affected by spectral–temporal degradation over distance. Interestingly and unlike previous findings, the transmission of formants was better than that of the fundamental frequency. Our findings demonstrate the importance of formant frequencies for the efficiency of rumble propagation and the transmission of information content in a savanna elephant’s natural habitat.