Electrochemistry and Photoluminescence of Icosahedral Carboranes, Boranes, Metallacarboranes, and Their Derivatives.

Boron clusters are polyhedral boron hydrides with unique properties, and they are becoming increasingly widely used in biology and medicine, including for boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) of cancers and in the design of novel bioactive molecules and potential drugs. Among boron cluster types, icosahedral boranes, carboranes, and metallacarboranes are particularly interesting, and there is a need for basic studies on their interaction with biologically important molecules, such as proteins. Herein, we report studies on the interaction of selected boron clusters and their derivatives with serum albumin, the most abundant protein in mammalian blood. The interaction of boron clusters with albumin was examined by fluorescence quenching, circular dichroism, dynamic and static light scattering measurements and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Our results showed that metallacarboranes have the strongest interaction with albumin among the tested clusters. The observed strength of boron cluster interactions with albumin decreases in order: metallacarboranes [M(C2B9H11)2]− > carboranes (C2B10H12) >> dodecaborate anion [B12H12]2−. Metallacarboranes first specifically interact with the binding cavity of albumin and then, with increasing compound concentrations, interact non-specifically with the protein surface. These findings can be of importance and are useful in the development of new bioactive compounds that contain boron clusters.

ConspectusIn this Account, we discuss our group's research over the past decade on a class of functionalized boron clusters with tunable chemical and physical properties, with an emphasis on accessing and controlling their redox behavior. These clusters can be thought of as three-dimensional aromatic systems that have distinct redox behavior and photophysical properties compared to their two-dimensional organic counterparts. Specifically, our lab has studied the highly tunable, multielectron redox behavior of B12(OR)12 clusters and applied these molecules in various settings. We first discuss the spectroscopic and electrochemical characterization of B12(OR)12 clusters in various oxidation states, followed by their use as catholytes and/or anolytes in redox flow batteries and chemical dopants in conjugated polymers. Additionally, the high oxidizing potential and visible light-absorbing nature of fluoroaryl-functionalized B12(OR)12 clusters have been leveraged by our group to generate weakly coordinating, photoexcitable species that can promote photooxidation chemistry.We have further translated these solution-phase studies of B12(OR)12 clusters to the solid state by using the precursor [B12(OH)12]2- cluster as a robust building block for hybrid metal oxide materials. Specifically, we have shown that the boron cluster can act as a thermally stable cross-linking material, which enhances electron transport between metal oxide nanoparticles. We applied this structural motif to create TiO2- and WO3-containing materials that showed promising properties as photocatalysts and electroactive materials for supercapacitors. Building on this concept, we later discovered that B12(OCH3)12, the smallest of the B12(OR)12 family, could retain its redox behavior in the solid state, a previously unseen phenomenon. We successfully harnessed this unique behavior for solid-state energy storage by implementing this boron cluster as a cathode-active material in a Li-ion prototype cell device. Recently, our group has also explored how to tune the redox properties of clusters other than B12(OR)12 species by synthesizing a library of vertex-differentiated clusters containing both B-OR and B-halogen groups. Due to the additive qualities of different functional groups on the cluster, these species allow access to a region of electrochemical potentials previously inaccessible by fully substituted closo-dodecaborate alkoxy-based derivatives.Lastly, we discuss our research into smaller-sized redox-active polyhedral boranes (B6- and B10-based cluster cores). Interestingly, these clusters show significantly less redox stability and reversibility than their dodecaborate-based counterparts. While exploring the functionalization of closo-hexaborate to create fully substituted derivates (i.e., [B6R6Hfac]-), we observed unique oxidative decomposition pathways for this cluster system. Consequently, we leveraged this oxidative instability to generate useful alkyl boronate esters via selective chemical oxidation. We further explored a closo-decaborate cluster as a platform to access electrophilic [B10H13]+ species capable of directly borylating arene compounds with unique regioselectivity. Upon chemical oxidation of the arylated decaborate clusters, we successfully synthesized various aryl boronate esters, establishing the generality of the oxidative cluster deconstruction concept.Overall, our work shows that boron clusters are an appealing class of redox-active molecules, and this fundamental and understudied property can be leveraged for constructing novel materials with tunable physical and electrochemical properties, as well as producing unique chemical reagents for small molecule synthesis.

ABSTRACTIntroduction: Icosahedral boron clusters have unique properties useful in medicinal chemistry: rigidity, chemical stability, and three-dimensional aromaticity. Furthermore, these abiotic compounds have low toxicity and are stable in the biological environment. All these features ultimately give them the ability to interact with biological molecules in a different mode than organic compounds.Areas covered: In the present article, we aim to introduce boron clusters as a class of entities suitable for modifications of biomolecules to obtain a specific biological effect. We will focus on icosahedral boron clusters, as well as metallacarboranes, and their biological activity and interaction with the biological environment.Expert opinion: Boron clusters are suitable for altering structural and functional features of biomolecules and can be used in the development of new drugs and drug delivery systems. The high affinity of boron clusters, especially metallacarboranes, to albumin creates a new possibility to use them to optimize the pharmacokinetics of biologically active peptides. Boron clusters have high potential in biological and medicinal applications. Due to their peculiar properties, they can be used to optimize parameters critical for the biological activity of therapeutic substances and their affinity toward biological targets.

Boron neutron-capture therapy (BNCT) is a highly precise, cell-level cancer radiotherapy. It exploits the neutron-capture reaction that occurs when low-energy thermal neutrons are absorbed by a boron-10 atom, triggering a nuclear fission reaction that releases high-energy particles to selectively kill cancer cells. BNCT is at the forefront of cancer treatment. Presently, only sodium mercaptoundecahydro-closo-dodecaborate and boron borylphenylalanine (BPA) have been approved as boron drugs for clinical trials by the Food and Drug Administration. However, these drugs still suffer from shortcomings, such as poor targeting, low concentration in cancer cells, a short residence time, and low overall applicability. Conversely, boron clusters are three-dimensional polyhedral structures composed of carbon, boron, and hydrogen atoms. Owing to their excellent stability and unique three-dimensional shape, they are ideal candidates for next-generation boron drugs. These unique features make boron clusters an ideal model for correlating macroscopic properties with the microstructures of substances, providing a valuable framework for the rational design of next-generation boron drugs. Thus, from an interdisciplinary perspective, this review summarizes new strategies for constructing boron clusters, including multi-level structures. We describe key chemical strategies for their functionalization for clinical applications, reveal the multi-scenario applications of their line-functionalized derivatives, and highlight their cross-disciplinary value in precision synthesis, biomedicine, and advanced materials, all with a focus on elucidating the structure-function relationship in boron clusters. Additionally, we explored the latest advancements in the visual evaluation of BNCT, its anticancer mechanism, and exclusive neutron accelerator devices. In summary, the development of novel boron drugs based on functional boron clusters is a prerequisite to resolving the key technical issues in the research and development of new BNCT agents. This review provides insights into the design of new BNCT drugs, as well as related supporting equipment and treatment options, from the perspectives of medicinal chemistry and clinical applications.

Metallic nanowires: Mechanical properties – Theory and experiment

Boron clusters and organic molecules display manifestly different electronic, physical, chemical and geometrical characteristics. These differences highlight the complementarity of organic synthons and boron clusters, and therefore the feasibility of producing hybrid polymers incorporating both types of fragments. This review focuses on the development of hybrid organic-inorganic π conjugated, silane, siloxane and coordination polymers containing icosahedral boron clusters in the last few decades, which have received considerable academic and technological interest due to the combination of the electronic, optical and thermal properties of traditional inorganic materials with many of the desirable properties of organic plastics, including mechanical flexibility and low production costs.

A synthetic strategy for functionalization of the three vertices of o-carborane and the attachment of the obtained triped to the solid support was developed. Further functionalization of the triped with short DNA sequences by automated DNA synthesis was achieved. The proposed methodology is a first example of boron cluster chemistry on a solid support opening new perspectives in boron cluster functionalization.

Androgen receptor (AR) has a key role in the development and progression of prostate cancer, and AR antagonists are used for its remedy. Recently, carborane derivatives, which are carbon-containing boron clusters have attracted attention as new AR ligands. Here we determined the force field parameters of 10-vertex and 12-vertex p-carborane to facilitate in silico drug design of boron clusters. Then, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of complexes of AR-carborane derivatives were performed to evaluate the parameters and investigate the influences of carborane derivatives on the three-dimensional structure of AR. Energy profiles were obtained using quantum chemical calculations, and the force-field parameters were determined by curve fitting of the energy profiles. The results of MD simulations indicated that binding of the antagonist-BA341 changed some hydrogen-bond formations involved in the structure and location of helix 12. Those results were consistent with previously reported data. The determined parameters are also useful for refining the structure of the carborane-receptor complex obtained by docking simulations and development of new ligands with carborane cages not only for AR but also for various receptors.

The incorporation of iodine atoms onto the boron vertices of the o-carborane framework causes, according to spectroscopic data, a uniform increase in the acidic character of the C(c)-H (C(c)= cluster carbon) vertices, whereas the incorporation of methyl groups onto the boron vertices of the o-carborane framework reduces their acidity. Methyl groups when attached to boron are electron-withdrawing in boron clusters, whereas iodine atoms bonded to boron act as electron donors. This has been proven on B-methyl and B-iodinated o-carboranes with NMR spectroscopy measurements and DFT calculations of natural bond orbital (NBO) charges, which show a cumulative buildup of positive cluster-only total charge (CTC) on B-methyl o-carboranes and a cumulative buildup of negative cluster-only total charge for B-iodinated o-carboranes.

Molecular electronics in its broadest definition encompasses all actual and potential applications of organic molecular materials to electronics and opto-electronics in which the molecular material plays an active role. The macroscopic properties of organic materials are already utilised in xerography and liquid crystal displays. Advances in understanding of electrical and nonlinear optical properties offer prospects for new applications in the near future. Molecular scale electronics has been frequently discussed but in the absence of experimental tests remains speculative. Progress in physics, chemistry, engineering and biology is now providing the means to conduct experiments at the molecular scale. This has opened up a number of alternative routes which may lead to the realisation of molecular scale electronics.

Chemistry of three-dimensional icosahedral boron clusters anions: closo-dodecaborate (2-) [B12H12]2- and carba-closo-dodecaborate(-) [CB11H12]-

Growth mechanism of amorphous hydrogenated carbon

An interesting feature of elemental boron and boron compounds is the occurrence of highly symmetric icosahedral clusters. The rich chemistry of boron is also dominated by three-dimensional cage structures. Despite its proximity to carbon in the periodic table, elemental boron clusters have been scarcely studied experimentally and their structures and chemical bonding have not been fully elucidated. Here we report experimental and theoretical evidence that small boron clusters prefer planar structures and exhibit aromaticity and antiaromaticity according to the Hückel rules, akin to planar hydrocarbons. Aromatic boron clusters possess more circular shapes whereas antiaromatic boron clusters are elongated, analogous to structural distortions of antiaromatic hydrocarbons. The planar boron clusters are thus the only series of molecules other than the hydrocarbons to exhibit size-dependent aromatic and antiaromatic behaviour and represent a new dimension of boron chemistry. The stable aromatic boron clusters may exhibit similar chemistries to that of benzene, such as forming sandwich-type metal compounds.

Metal-phthalocyanines (MPcs) and their derivates have attracted increasing interest in recent years, due to their potential applications in molecular electronics, spintronics, sensors, and so on. To this end, it is essential to tune the structural, electronic and spin properties of MPcs. Using the low-temperature scanning tunneling microscopy (LT-STM), we demonstrate that the spin, chirality and adsorption site of MnPc on Au(111) surface can be tuned by hydrogen atoms. STM experiments and density functional theory (DFT) calculations reveal that the preferential adsorption sites for the MnPc molecules may switch from the fcc regions to the hcp regions on the Au(111) surface after a hydrogen atom is adsorbed on top of the central Mn ion of each MnPc molecule. Moreover, the molecular spin decreases from S=3/2 to S=1 and the molecule-substrate coupling is weakened after the adsorption of a hydrogen atom on a MnPc molecule, leading to the quenching of Kondo effect at 4.2 K. However, the molecular spin and Kondo effect can be recovered by local voltage pulse or sample heating. Adsorption of three hydrogen atoms on a MnPc molecule not merely lowers the molecular symmetry from 4-to 2-fold, but also breaks down the mirror symmetry of the entire adsorbate complex (molecule and surface), thus rendering it to become chiral without any realignment at the surface. Dehydrogenation of the adsorbate by means of inelastic electron tunneling can also restore the mirror symmetry of the adsorbate complex. STM experiments as well as DFT calculations show that the chirality is actually imprinted into the molecular electronic system by the surface, i.e., the lowest unoccupied orbital is devoid of mirror symmetry. Our novel reversible spin and hand control scheme can be easily realized at single-molecule level, thus opening up a new avenue to broader applications based on the molecular electronic and spin states.

Redox moieties, which are present in the molecular backbone of humic substances (HS), govern their antioxidant properties. We hypothesized that a directed modification of the humic backbone via incorporation of redox moieties with known redox properties might provide an efficient tool for tuning up antioxidant properties of HS. In this work, hydroquinonoid and hydronaphthoquinonoid centres were used, which possess very different redox characteristics. They were incorporated into the structure of coal (leonardite) humic acids CHA) and peat fulvic acids (PFA). For this goal, an oxidative copolymerization of phenols was used. The latter was induced via oxidation of hydroquinones and hydroxynapjtaquinones with a use of Fenton’s reagent. The structure of the obtained products was characterized using NMR and FTIR spectroscopy. H/D labelling coupled to FT ICR mass spectrometry analysis was applied for identification of the reaction products as a tool for surmising on reaction mechanism. It was shown that covalent -C-C- bond were formed between the incorporated redox centers and aromatic core of HS. The parent humic acids and their naphthoquinonoid derivatives have demonstrated high accepting capacity. At the same time, fulvic acids and their hydroquinonoid derivatives have possessed both high donor and high antioxidant capacities. The kinetic studies have demonstrated that both humic acids and their derivatives showed much slower kinetics of antioxidant reactions as compared to fulvic acids. The obtained results show, firstly, substantial difference in redox and antioxidant properties of the humic and fulvic acids, and, secondly, they can serve as an experimental evidence that directed chemical modification of humic substances can be used to tune and control antioxidant properties of natural HS.