Abstract
Increasing awareness of the impacts of infectious diseases has driven the development of advanced techniques for detecting pathogens in clinical and environmental settings. However, this process is hindered by the complexity and variability inherent in antibiotic-resistant species. A great deal of effort has been put into the development of antibiotic-resistance/susceptibility testing (AST) sensors and systems to administer proper drugs for patient-tailored therapy. Electrochemical sensors have garnered increasing attention due to their powerful potential to allow rapid, sensitive, and real-time monitoring, alongside the low-cost production, feasibility of minimization, and easy integration with other techniques. This review focuses on the recent advances in electrochemical sensing strategies that have been used to determine the level of antibiotic resistance/susceptibility of pathogenic bacteria. The recent examples of the current electrochemical AST sensors discussed here are classified into four categories according to what is detected and quantitated: the presence of antibiotic-resistant genes, changes in impedance caused by cell lysis, current response caused by changes in cellular membrane properties, and changes in the redox state of redox molecules. It also discusses potential strategies for the development of electrochemical AST sensors, with the goal of broadening their practical applications across various scientific and technological fields.
Highlights
The increase in the danger from and speed of the emergency of antibiotic-resistant pathogens has become a public health issue of global concern
antibiotic-resistance/susceptibility testing (AST) sensors into four groups according to the following sensing strategies: (1) detection of antibiotic-resistant genes, (2) assessment of the resistance change caused by cell lysis, (3) assessment of the current response caused by changes in membrane properties, and (4) assessment of the redox changes in a redox-active molecule affected by bacterial metabolic activity
One major challenge confronting the field of pathogen diagnostics is the fast and accurate characterization of antibiotic resistance/susceptibility of infecting species or strains in various settings to prescribe appropriate antibiotics to patients and regions at an early stage
Summary
The increase in the danger from and speed of the emergency of antibiotic-resistant pathogens has become a public health issue of global concern. AST sensors into four groups according to the following sensing strategies: (1) detection of antibiotic-resistant genes, (2) assessment of the resistance change caused by cell lysis, (3) assessment of the current response caused by changes in membrane properties, and (4) assessment of the redox changes in a redox-active molecule affected by bacterial metabolic activity. If bacteria are resistant to antibiotics, cells create a reduction environment and reduce the agent, and the change in the redox state of the agent is detected by measuring the decrease in the current. We highlight how specific sensors detect antibiotic-resistance levels of bacteria
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