EIGHT ULTRA-FAINT GALAXY CANDIDATES DISCOVERED IN YEAR TWO OF THE DARK ENERGY SURVEY

We use the first-year Dark Energy Survey (DES) data down to previously unprobed photometric depths to search for stellar systems in the Galactic halo, therefore complementing the previous analysis of the same data carried out by our group earlier this year. Our search is based on a matched filter algorithm that produces stellar density maps consistent with stellar population models of various ages, metallicities, and distances over the survey area. The most conspicuous density peaks in these maps have been identified automatically and ranked according to their significance and recurrence for different input models. We report the discovery of one additional stellar system besides those previously found by several authors using the same first-year DES data. The object is compact, and consistent with being dominated by an old and metal-poor population. DES 1 is found at high significance and appears in the DES images as a compact concentration of faint blue point sources. Assuming different spatial profile parameterizations, the best-fitting heliocentric distance and total absolute magnitude in the range of 77.6–87.1 kpc and −3.00 ≲ <it>M</it><inf><it>V</it></inf> ≲ −2.21, respectively. The half-light radius of this object, <it>r</it><inf>h</inf> ∼ 10 pc and total luminosity are consistent with it being a low-mass halo cluster. It is also found to have a very elongated shape (ε ∼ 0.57). In addition, our deeper probe of DES first-year data confirms the recently reported satellite galaxy candidate Horologium II as a significant stellar overdensity. We also infer its structural properties and compare them to those reported in the literature.

We report results from a systematic wide-area search for faint dwarf galaxies at heliocentric distances from 0.3 to 2 Mpc using the full 6 yr of data from the Dark Energy Survey (DES). Unlike previous searches over the DES data, this search specifically targeted a field population of faint galaxies located beyond the Milky Way virial radius. We derive our detection efficiency for faint, resolved dwarf galaxies in the Local Volume with a set of synthetic galaxies and expect our search to be complete to M V ∼ (−7, −10) mag for galaxies at D = (0.3, 2.0) Mpc. We find no new field dwarfs in the DES footprint, but we report the discovery of one high-significance candidate dwarf galaxy at a distance of 2.2−0.12+0.05Mpc , a potential satellite of the Local Volume galaxy NGC 55, separated by 47′ (physical separation as small as 30 kpc). We estimate this dwarf galaxy to have an absolute V-band magnitude of −8.0−0.3+0.5mag and an azimuthally averaged physical half-light radius of 2.2−0.4+0.5kpc , making this one of the lowest surface brightness galaxies ever found with μ=32.3magarcsec−2 . This is the largest, most diffuse galaxy known at this luminosity, suggesting possible tidal interactions with its host.

A detailed study of stellar populations in Milky Way (MW) satellite galaxies remains an observational challenge due to their faintness and fewer spectroscopically confirmed member stars. We use unsupervised machine learning methods to identify new members for nine nearby MW satellite galaxies using Gaia data release-3 (Gaia DR3) astrometry and the Dark Energy Survey (DES) and the DECam Local Volume Exploration Survey (DELVE) photometry. Two density-based clustering algorithms, DBSCAN and HDBSCAN, have been used in the fourdimensional astrometric parameter space (𝛼 2016 , 𝛿 2016 , 𝜇 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿, 𝜇 𝛿 ) to identify member stars belonging to MW satellite galaxies. Our results indicate that we can recover more than 80% of the known spectroscopically confirmed members in most of the satellite galaxies and also reject 95-100% of spectroscopic non-members. We have also added many new members using this method. We compare our results with previous studies that also use photometric and astrometric data and discuss the suitability of density-based clustering methods for MW satellite galaxies Keywords. machine learning -clustering -dbscan -hdbscan -milkyway satellite galaxies -ultra faint dwarf galaxies

Here, we report the discovery of two new candidate stellar systems in the constellation of Cetus using the data from the first two years of the Dark Energy Survey (DES). The objects, DES J0111–1341 and DES J0225+0304, are located at a heliocentric distance of ~25 kpc and appear to have old and metal-poor populations. Their distances to the Sagittarius orbital plane, ~1.73 kpc (DES J0111–1341) and ~0.50 kpc (DES J0225+0304), indicate that they are possibly associated with the Sagittarius dwarf stream. The half-light radius (rh ≃ 4.55 pc) and luminosity (MV ≃ +0.3) of DES J0111–1341 are consistent with it being an ultrafaint stellar cluster, while the half-light radius (rh ≃ 18.55 pc) and luminosity (MV ≃ –1.1) of DES J0225+0304 place it in an ambiguous region of size–luminosity space between stellar clusters and dwarf galaxies. Determinations of the characteristic parameters of the Sagittarius stream, metallicity spread (–2.18 ≲ [Fe/H] ≲ –0.95) and distance gradient (23 kpc ≲ D_⊙ ≲ 29 kpc), within the DES footprint in the Southern hemisphere, using the same DES data, also indicate a possible association between these systems. If these objects are confirmed through spectroscopic follow-up to be gravitationally bound systems and to share a Galactic trajectory with the Sagittarius stream, DES J0111–1341 and DES J0225+0304 would be the first ultrafaint stellar systems associated with the Sagittarius stream. Moreover, DES J0225+0304 would also be the first confirmed case of an ultrafaint satellite of a satellite.

We report the results of a systematic search for ultra-faint Milky Way satellite galaxies using data from the Dark Energy Survey (DES) and Pan-STARRS1 (PS1). Together, DES and PS1 provide multi-band photometry in optical/near-infrared wavelengths over ∼80% of the sky. Our search for satellite galaxies targets ∼25,000 deg2 of the high-Galactic-latitude sky reaching a 10σ point-source depth of ≳22.5 mag in the g and r bands. While satellite galaxy searches have been performed independently on DES and PS1 before, this is the first time that a self-consistent search is performed across both data sets. We do not detect any new high-significance satellite galaxy candidates, recovering the majority of satellites previously detected in surveys of comparable depth. We characterize the sensitivity of our search using a large set of simulated satellites injected into the survey data. We use these simulations to derive both analytic and machine-learning models that accurately predict the detectability of Milky Way satellites as a function of their distance, size, luminosity, and location on the sky. To demonstrate the utility of this observational selection function, we calculate the luminosity function of Milky Way satellite galaxies, assuming that the known population of satellite galaxies is representative of the underlying distribution. We provide access to our observational selection function to facilitate comparisons with cosmological models of galaxy formation and evolution.

We perform a search for stellar streams around the Milky Way using the first 3 yr of multiband optical imaging data from the Dark Energy Survey (DES). We use DES data covering ∼5000 deg2 to a depth of g > 23.5 with a relative photometric calibration uncertainty of <1%. This data set yields unprecedented sensitivity to the stellar density field in the southern celestial hemisphere, enabling the detection of faint stellar streams to a heliocentric distance of ∼50 kpc. We search for stellar streams using a matched filter in color–magnitude space derived from a synthetic isochrone of an old, metal-poor stellar population. Our detection technique recovers four previously known thin stellar streams: Phoenix, ATLAS, Tucana III, and a possible extension of Molonglo. In addition, we report the discovery of 11 new stellar streams. In general, the new streams detected by DES are fainter, more distant, and lower surface brightness than streams detected by similar techniques in previous photometric surveys. As a by-product of our stellar stream search, we find evidence for extratidal stellar structure associated with four globular clusters: NGC 288, NGC 1261, NGC 1851, and NGC 1904. The ever-growing sample of stellar streams will provide insight into the formation of the Galactic stellar halo, the Milky Way gravitational potential, and the large- and small-scale distribution of dark matter around the Milky Way.

We analyze Dark Energy Survey (DES) data to constrain a cosmological model where a subset of parameters---focusing on ${\mathrm{\ensuremath{\Omega}}}_{m}$---are split into versions associated with structure growth (e.g., ${\mathrm{\ensuremath{\Omega}}}_{m}^{\mathrm{grow}}$) and expansion history (e.g., ${\mathrm{\ensuremath{\Omega}}}_{m}^{\mathrm{geo}}$). Once the parameters have been specified for the $\mathrm{\ensuremath{\Lambda}}\mathrm{CDM}$ cosmological model, which includes general relativity as a theory of gravity, it uniquely predicts the evolution of both geometry (distances) and the growth of structure over cosmic time. Any inconsistency between measurements of geometry and growth could therefore indicate a breakdown of that model. Our growth-geometry split approach therefore serves both as a (largely) model-independent test for beyond-$\mathrm{\ensuremath{\Lambda}}\mathrm{CDM}$ physics, and as a means to characterize how DES observables provide cosmological information. We analyze the same multiprobe DES data as [Phys. Rev. Lett. 122, 171301 (2019)] : DES Year 1 (Y1) galaxy clustering and weak lensing, which are sensitive to both growth and geometry, as well as Y1 BAO and Y3 supernovae, which probe geometry. We additionally include external geometric information from BOSS DR12 BAO and a compressed Planck 2015 likelihood, and external growth information from BOSS DR12 RSD. We find no significant disagreement with ${\mathrm{\ensuremath{\Omega}}}_{m}^{\mathrm{grow}}={\mathrm{\ensuremath{\Omega}}}_{m}^{\mathrm{geo}}$. When DES and external data are analyzed separately, degeneracies with neutrino mass and intrinsic alignments limit our ability to measure ${\mathrm{\ensuremath{\Omega}}}_{m}^{\mathrm{grow}}$, but combining DES with external data allows us to constrain both growth and geometric quantities. We also consider a parametrization where we split both ${\mathrm{\ensuremath{\Omega}}}_{m}$ and $w$, but find that even our most constraining data combination is unable to separately constrain ${\mathrm{\ensuremath{\Omega}}}_{m}^{\mathrm{grow}}$ and ${w}^{\mathrm{grow}}$. Relative to $\mathrm{\ensuremath{\Lambda}}\mathrm{CDM}$, splitting growth and geometry weakens bounds on ${\ensuremath{\sigma}}_{8}$ but does not alter constraints on $h$.

We present a new, probabilistic method for determining the systemic proper motions of Milky Way (MW) ultra-faint satellites in the Dark Energy Survey (DES). We utilize the superb photometry from the first public data release (DR1) of the DES to select candidate members and cross-match them with the proper motions from the Gaia DR2. We model the candidate members with a mixture model (satellite and MW) in spatial and proper motion space. This method does not require prior knowledge of satellite membership and can successfully determine the tangential motion of 13 DES satellites. With our method, we present measurements of the following satellites: Columba I, Eridanus III, Grus II, Phoenix II, Pictor I, Reticulum III, and Tucana IV. This is the first systemic proper motion measurement for several of these satellites, and the majority lack extensive spectroscopic follow-up studies. We compare these to the predictions of Large Magellanic Cloud satellites and the vast polar structure. With the high-precision DES photometry, we conclude that most of the newly identified member stars are very metal-poor ([Fe/H] ≲ −2), similar to other ultra-faint dwarf galaxies, while Reticulum III is likely more metal-rich. We also find potential members in the following satellites that might indicate their overall proper motion: Cetus II, Kim 2, and Horologium II. However, due to the small number of members in each satellite, spectroscopic follow-up observations are necessary to determine the systemic proper motion in these satellites.

We review evidence that the census of Milky Way satellites similar to those known may be incomplete at low latitude due to obscuration and in the outer halo due to a decreasing sensitivity to dwarf satellites with distance. We evaluate the possible impact that incompleteness has on comparisons with substructure models by estimating corrections to the known number of dwarfs using empirical and theoretical models. If we assume that the true distribution of Milky Way satellites is uniform with latitude, then we estimate a 33% incompleteness in the total number of dwarfs due to obscuration at low latitude. Similarly, if we suppose that the radial distribution of Milky Way satellites matches that of M31, or that of the oldest sub-halos or the most massive sub-halos in a simulation, we estimate a total number of Milky Way dwarfs ranging from 1 -- 3 times the known population. Although the true level of incompleteness is quite uncertain, the fact that our extrapolations yield average total numbers of MW dwarfs that are realistically 1.5 -- 2 times the known population, shows that incompleteness needs to be taken seriously when comparing to models of dwarf galaxy formation. Interestingly, the radial distribution of the oldest sub-halos in a Lambda+CDM simulation of a Milky Way-like galaxy possess a close match to the observed distribution of M31's satellites, which suggests that reionization may be an important factor controlling the observability of sub-halos. We also assess the prospects for a new SDSS search for Milky Way satellites to constrain the possible incompleteness in the outer halo.

While proper orbital elements are currently available for more than 1 million asteroids, taxonomical information is still lagging behind. Surveys like SDSS-MOC4 provided preliminary information for more than 100 000 objects, but many asteroids still lack even a basic taxonomy. In this study, we use Dark Energy Survey (DES) data to provide new information on asteroid physical properties. By cross-correlating the new DES data base with other data bases, we investigate how asteroid taxonomy is reflected in DES data. While the resolution of DES data is not sufficient to distinguish between different asteroid taxonomies within the complexes, except for V-type objects, it can provide information on whether an asteroid belongs to the C- or S-complex. Here, machine learning methods optimized through the use of genetic algorithms were used to predict the labels of more than 68 000 asteroids with no prior taxonomic information. Using a high-quality, limited set of asteroids with data on gri slopes and i − z colours, we detected 409 new possible V-type asteroids. Their orbital distribution is highly consistent with that of other known V-type objects.

We present a technique to fit the stellar components of the Galaxy by comparing Hess Diagrams (HDs) generated from trilegal models to real data. We apply this technique, which we call mwfitting, to photometric data from the first 3 yr of the Dark Energy Survey (DES). After removing regions containing known resolved stellar systems such as globular clusters, dwarf galaxies, nearby galaxies, the Large Magellanic Cloud, and the Sagittarius Stream, our main sample spans a total area of ∼2300 deg2. We further explore a smaller subset (∼1300 deg2) that excludes all regions with known stellar streams and stellar overdensities. Validation tests on synthetic data possessing similar properties to the DES data show that the method is able to recover input parameters with a precision better than 3 per cent. We fit the DES data with an exponential thick disc model and an oblate double power-law halo model. We find that the best-fitting thick disc model has radial and vertical scale heights of 2.67 ± 0.09 kpc and 925 ± 40 pc, respectively. The stellar halo is fit with a broken power-law density profile with an oblateness of 0.75 ± 0.01, an inner index of 1.82 ± 0.08, an outer index of 4.14 ± 0.05, and a break at 18.52 ± 0.27 kpc from the Galactic centre. Several previously discovered stellar overdensities are recovered in the residual stellar density map, showing the reliability of mwfitting in determining the Galactic components. Simulations made with the best-fitting parameters are a promising way to predict Milky Way star counts for surveys such as the LSST and Euclid.

We predict the sensitivity of the Vera C. Rubin Observatory Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) to faint, resolved Milky Way satellite galaxies and outer-halo star clusters. We characterize the expected sensitivity using simulated LSST data from the LSST Dark Energy Science Collaboration (DESC) Data Challenge 2 (DC2) accessed and analyzed with the Rubin Science Platform as part of the Rubin Early Science Program. We simulate resolved stellar populations of Milky Way satellite galaxies and outer-halo star clusters over a wide range of sizes, luminosities, and heliocentric distances, which are broadly consistent with expectations for the Milky Way satellite system. We inject simulated stars into the DC2 catalog with realistic photometric uncertainties and star/galaxy separation derived from the DC2 data itself. We assess the probability that each simulated system would be detected by LSST using a conventional isochrone matched-filter technique. We find that assuming perfect star/galaxy separation enables the detection of resolved stellar systems with MV = 0 mag and r1/2 = 10 pc with >50% efficiency out to a heliocentric distance of ~250 kpc. Similar detection efficiency is possible with a simple star/galaxy separation criterion based on measured quantities, although the false positive rate is higher due to leakage of background galaxies into the stellar sample. When assuming perfect star/galaxy classification and a model for the galaxy-halo connection fit to current data, we predict that 89 +/- 20 Milky Way satellite galaxies will be detectable with a simple matched-filter algorithm applied to the LSST wide-fast-deep data set. Different assumptions about the performance of star/galaxy classification efficiency can decrease this estimate by ~7-25%, which emphasizes the importance of high-quality star/galaxy separation for studies of the Milky Way satellite population with LSST.

Many studies have shown that RR Lyrae variable stars (RRL) are powerful stellar tracers of Galactic halo structure and satellite galaxies. The Dark Energy Survey (DES), with its deep and wide coverage (g ∼ 23.5 mag in a single exposure; over 5000 deg2) provides a rich opportunity to search for substructures out to the edge of the Milky Way halo. However, the sparse and unevenly sampled multiband light curves from the DES wide-field survey (a median of four observations in each of grizY over the first three years) pose a challenge for traditional techniques used to detect RRL. We present an empirically motivated and computationally efficient template-fitting method to identify these variable stars using three years of DES data. When tested on DES light curves of previously classified objects in SDSS stripe 82, our algorithm recovers 89% of RRL periods to within 1% of their true value with 85% purity and 76% completeness. Using this method, we identify 5783 RRL candidates, ∼28% of which are previously undiscovered. This method will be useful for identifying RRL in other sparse multiband data sets.

Our Galaxy is surrounded by a large family of dwarf galaxies of which the most massive are the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds (LMC and SMC). Recent evidence suggests that systems with the mass of the Local Group accrete galaxies in smaller groups rather than individually. If so, at least some of the Galaxy's dwarfs may have fallen in with the LMC and SMC, and were formed as part of the Magellanic system in the nearby universe. We use the latest measurements of the proper motions of the LMC and SMC and a multicomponent model of the Galactic potential to explore the evolution of these galaxy configurations under the assumption that the Magellanic system may once have contained a number of bound dwarf galaxies. We compare our results to the available kinematic data for the local dwarf galaxies, and examine whether this model can account for recently discovered stellar streams and the planar distribution of Milky Way satellites. We find that in situations where the LMC and SMC are bound to the Milky Way, the kinematics of Draco, Sculptor, Sextans, Ursa Minor and the Sagittarius Stream are consistent with having fallen in along with the Magellanic system. These dwarfs, if so associated, will likely have been close to the tidal radius of the LMC originally and are unlikely to have affected each other throughout the orbit. However there are clear cases, such as Carina and Leo I, that cannot be explained this way

The properties of Milky Way satellite galaxies have important implications for galaxy formation, reionization, and the fundamental physics of dark matter. However, the population of Milky Way satellites includes the faintest known galaxies, and current observations are incomplete. To understand the impact of observational selection effects on the known satellite population, we perform rigorous, quantitative estimates of the Milky Way satellite galaxy detection efficiency in three wide-field survey datasets: the Dark Energy Survey Year 6, the DECam Local Volume Exploration Data Release 3, and the Pan-STARRS1 Data Release 1. Together, these surveys cover ∼13,600 deg 2 to g ∼ 24.0 and ∼27,700 deg 2 to g ∼ 22.5, spanning ∼91% of the high-Galactic-latitude sky (∣ b ∣ ≥ 15°). We apply multiple detection algorithms over the combined footprint and recover 49 known satellites above a strict census detection threshold. To characterize the sensitivity of our census, we run our detection algorithms on a large set of simulated galaxies injected into the survey data, which allows us to develop models that predict the detectability of satellites as a function of their properties. We then fit an empirical model to our data and infer the luminosity function, radial distribution, and size–luminosity relation of Milky Way satellite galaxies. Our empirical model predicts a total of 26 5 − 47 + 79 satellite galaxies with −20 ≤ M V ≤ 0, half-light radii of 15 ≤ r 1/2 , (pc) ≤ 3000, and galactocentric distances of 10 ≤ D GC (kpc) ≤ 300. We also identify a mild anisotropy in the angular distribution of the observed galaxies, at a significance of ∼2 σ , which can be attributed to the clustering of satellites associated with the LMC.