EFL Teachers’ Conceptions of Designing Classroom- Based Tests

English is taught as one of the most popular foreign languages in East Asia. English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers’ conceptions, knowledge, and skills in language assessment can influence their assessment practices and decisions. Teachers’ language assessment literacy (LAL) is not only an integral part of their own professional identity and development, but also a mechanism to ensure fairness and equity in their everyday assessment practices that can have a significant influence on their students’ learning. Set within the specific context of East Asia, this chapter reports our review of studies that aimed to identify different components of LAL, EFL teachers’ conceptions of language assessment, how their conceptions might affect their practices in classroom-based assessment and high-stakes examinations, the training needs of teachers, and the effectiveness of different assessment training programs. The discussions of the findings are made with reference to the interrelationships between EFL teachers’ LAL, their professional growth and educational development in East Asia more broadly. We conclude the chapter by calling for the inclusion of a range of East Asia-specific factors (educational, social, cultural) in the current context of globalization and teacher professionalism in a digital age, for the conceptualization of LAL of EFL teachers in East Asia.KeywordsLanguage assessment literacyLearning-oriented assessmentEducational reformEducational developmentEast Asia

Tests that require intellectual work and critical thinking increase students' achievement as well as motivation. The University Entrance Exams (UEEs) in Iran which are multiple-choice high-stakes tests and are primarily designed to screen the candidates for postgraduate studies are no exception. This paper aims at comparatively investigating Iran's MA (Master's of Art) UEEs of TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) and English translation through the use of Anderson and Krathwohl's (2001) taxonomy of the cognitive domain. With this aim, the (2007-2011) TEFL and English translation UEE test items of the technical knowledge sections were content analyzed in terms of the taxonomy of educational objectives using a detailed checklist developed based on the respective classification of cognitive objectives. The findings showed slight differences between TEFL and English translation UEEs in terms of critical thinking skills. The English translation test items pertained to critical cognitive skills in general and evaluation in particular to a larger extent. On the whole, the degree of critical thinking skills in the TEFL and English translation UEEs were not so desirable and the majority of the test items revealed lower-order thinking skills. Therefore, it is necessary to both reconsider teaching process and to promote critical thinking skills in constructing test items.

Consequential validity, a facet of construct validity, has been extensively explored by educational psychologists and scholars focused on English language assessment. It is widely recognized that English language instructors must possess a thorough understanding of high-stake language tests. However, the body of research concerning EFL teachers’ perceptions of high-stake tests is quite limited. This study aims to delve into the cognitions of Iranian EFL teachers regarding the social and psychological ramifications of high-stake English language tests. Additionally, the study investigates the influence of a teacher training workshop on EFL teachers’ perceptions of test consequences. The research employs a two-phase quantitative research design. A total of 210 EFL teachers participated in the survey, completing a scale comprising 25 items that delineated their perceptions of test consequences. Furthermore, thirty teachers engaged in a two-session workshop focused on test consequences. Data analysis encompassed both one-sample and paired-sample t tests.The results reveal that EFL teachers possess knowledge regarding certain social and psychological consequences of language tests; however, their awareness of some adverse consequences remains limited. Notably, the outcomes indicate that teacher training workshops have a positive impact on teachers’ cognitions of both positive and negative test consequences. The implications of these findings extend to teacher trainers and English language educators, offering practical insights to enhance the effectiveness of their teaching practices.

Synonyms, as an important part of English vocabulary, have always been a key but difficult point in EFL (English as a foreign language) teaching. In the traditional vocabulary teaching, teachers mainly distinguish synonyms via describing, translating and explaining with examples in the dictionary. However, most dictionaries can only provide separate word meanings and limited examples without explaining the different usage and meanings of the synonyms. Therefore, drawing upon Sinclair's model of extended lexical units (ELUs) and employing a corpus-assisted approach to the study of synonyms preserve and conserve, this study tries to analyse the similarities and differences of these synonyms from the perspectives of their frequency, colligation, collocation, semantic preference and semantic prosody. The findings show that corpus-assisted approach is more effective, objective and reliable in distinguishing synonyms and a number of implications can be concluded in English language teaching, learning, testing and research.

This article examines the relationship between test administration tools and item types. It firstly examines the difference in the test administration tools such as paper-based test, computer-based test, and web-based test, in particular, dealing with speaking test. The difference is relevant to item or task types. Based on the considerations of Bachman and Palmer (1996) and Chapelle and Douglas (2006) on test development, and Weir's (2005) definition of context validity, the application of computer technologies to test administration needs to be considered an important construct affecting test takers' performance. To investigate the item type difference among current speaking tests and its relationship with computer technology in administrating the tests, twelve test takers, five proctors, and two computer lab administrator participated in the phone interview and e-mail survey. Six popular speaking tests (TSE, PELT, IELTS, MATE, iBT TOEFL, ESPT) were selected to be analyzed. The data were analyzed in terms of item types, computer technology use, and test-takers perceptions. The implication is suggested for students, teachers, and language testers.

This paper describes how English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers can bring reliable, valid, user-friendly assessment into their classrooms, and thus improve the quality of learning that occurs there. Based on the experience of the author as a an EFL teacher and teachertrainer, it is suggested that the promotion and development of autonomy, intrinsic motivation, and self-esteem that takes place in a Classroom-Based Assessment (CBA) environment facilitates an holistic approach to language learning and prepares the students for the highstakes tests that often determine their motivation for learning English. Rather than relying on the memorization of language code, form, lexis, and prepared answers, students who have learned in a CBA environment are able to self-assess, peer-assess, build portfolios, and edit their own work. Not only does this reduce the assessment burden on the teacher, but it also develops the skills of problem-solving, critical thinking, and summarization in the students, in addition to a heightened awareness of the language-learning process. By learning how to set goals, assess their achievements, and reflect on their future learning needs, students become more efficient language learners. While acknowledging the place of standardized, summative tests in contemporary society, it is suggested that CBA in the EFL classroom can enhance long-term learning and consequently enable and empower students to prepare for their future learning needs.

Classroom-Based Assessment plays a fundamental role in any standards-based system of education. Unlike large-scale assessments which focus on measurement, classroom-based assessment, as the foundation for all other types of assessments, aims learning. Despite this prominence, different aspects of it have not received the due attention specifically in EFL context of Iran. To this end, this descriptive survey study sought to examine the purposes, strategies, and procedures lied behind Iranian EFL teachers’ use of classroom assessment. In this study, the data were collected by involving 187 Iranian EFL teachers who completed a questionnaire (adopted from Cheng, Roger, & Hu, 2004). The results revealed that Iranian EFL teachers used assessment with mainly student-centered purposes. In assessing different skills, the teachers’ use of student-administered strategies was more prominent. Finally, varying patterns were reported in their assessment procedures. They also devoted more than 20% of their class time to assessment. Such findings would raise the teachers’ awareness regarding their classroom-based assessment practices as they compare teachers’ assessment strategies and practices across various educational setting.

The current study aimed to explore junior secondary school English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers perceptions of classroom-based assessment and to understand the extent to which teachers’ perceptions are reflected in their practice.To this end, a total of twenty two Indonesian EFL teachers from six public junior secondary schools participated in the study where they were surveyed and interviewed. Shim’s (2009) survey instrument was adapted to collect data related teachers’ perception. A semi-structured interview was conducted with five of twenty-two teachers where were selected randomly. A document study was also conducted to further verify data from the questionnaire and interview. The gathered data included curriculum, syllabus, lesson plans, example of assessment materials and students’ work. Quantitative data analysis with t-test was employed to analyse the quantitative data while the qualitative data were analysed using a thematic data analysis. Findings of the current study had suggested that teachers had appropriate knowledge about assessment principles and applied such a knowledge into classroom practice. Although, the discrepancy between teachers’ knowledge and its application in classroom practices was identified, particularly in implementation andmonitoring stages. Some concerns that influenced teachers’ practice of classroom assessment included the local or school policy, teachers’ use of non-achievement factors (e.g. students’ attendance and attitudes), and parents’ involvement in their children education. The findings contribute to a better understanding of teachers’ assessment literacy in their particular context, as they make meaning and interact with assessment materials and relevant stakeholders of assessment.Recommendations were offered in reference to the findings.Keywords:classroom-based assessment, literacy assessment, primary educations.

In EFL educational contexts, Classroom-Based Assessment (CBA) provides valuable information that serves a variety of purposes, whether formative, summative, or a blend of both. This broad spectrum of purposes encompasses student-centered, instruction-based, and administration-based purposes. The Moroccan EFL context is marked by the extensive reliance on summative assessment techniques, such as written tests focusing on traditional items (e.g., gap-filling). However, it remains unclear how EFL teachers utilize CBA. Accordingly, this study aims to investigate the purposes of using CBA. A quantitative approach utilizing an online self-report questionnaire was employed to collect survey data from 260 teacher participants. The results of this study revealed that EFL teachers use CBA for a variety of purposes, primarily serving student-centered purposes. These include motivating students to excel, providing constructive feedback, and guiding them in setting learning goals. It also fulfils instruction-based purposes, such as identifying strengths and areas for improvement in teaching practices, as well as administrative purposes, such as formally documenting student achievements. Additionally, only some students are aware of the purposes of CBA. In light of this, the study concludes with significant implications for CBA policies, training, and research, highlighting the need for a more balanced approach that integrates both formative and summative assessment practices. It also emphasizes the importance of systematically analyzing CBA and promoting greater student involvement in assessment processes.

The current study investigated the association between multiple intelligences and language learning efficacy expectations among TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) university students. To fulfill the aim of the study, 108 junior and senior TEFL students were asked to complete the Multiple Intelligence Developmental Assessment Scales (MIDAS) (Shearer, 1996) and the Learners' Sense of Efficacy Survey (Gahungu, 2009). Descriptive statistics, correlation analysis and regression analysis were employed to analyze the data. The findings of correlation analysis indicated that, among the different types of intelligences, Linguistic and Intrapersonal intelligences had strong positive correlations with learners' self-efficacy beliefs. The results of regression analysis showed that Linguistic and Intrapersonal intelligences were positive predictors of learners’ efficacy beliefs, whereas Mathematical intelligence was the negative predictor of students’ self-efficacy beliefs. All in all, the findings of the present study contribute to the understanding of the interplay between students’ multiple intelligences and their language learning self-efficacy beliefs; furthermore, they convey some implications for university teachers, material and curriculum developers and language testers.

The topic of self-initiated professional development has garnered increasing attention among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers who are motivated to identify and address gaps in their professional development. This study aimed to investigate the perceptions, practices, and challenges of EFL teachers at Addis Ababa Science and Technology University with regard to self-initiated professional development. The participants consisted of 35 EFL instructors with 12 holding PhD degrees and the remaining 23 holding MA degrees at Addis Ababa Science and Technology University. The study adopted a concurrent mixed methods research design, utilizing both a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews for data collection. The study employed a total population sampling method and conducted semi-structured interviews with four randomly selected EFL teachers. Data analysis was performed separately for the questionnaire and interview data, followed by a mixed analysis to triangulate and corroborate the results. The findings revealed that the majority of the EFL teachers had a positive perception of self-initiated professional development, which was reflected in their practice of self-monitoring and analyzing critical incidents. However, the teachers did not engage in practices such as keeping a teaching journal, conducting action research, reflecting on their teaching, or developing a teaching portfolio. The challenges to self-initiated professional development were identified as lack of commitment, collaboration among colleagues, communication, and institutional support. This study highlights the potential of self-initiated professional development as an alternative means of addressing professional development needs among EFL teachers.

This study aimed to investigate how tertiary TEFL teacher education students‟ evaluative language competence can be extended through explicit teaching of linguistic descriptions of resources for expressing attitudinal meanings in English. In particular, it sought to determine how tertiary TEFL courses informed by the Appraisal framework (Martin & White, 2005) and text-based pedagogy (Feez & De Silva Joyce, 2012) can be designed and implemented to improve students‟ evaluative language competence. It also aimed to examine how such courses can extend students‟ evaluative language repertoires, and how students can discuss their understanding and use of the language of evaluation using their metaknowledge of Appraisal. In pursuit of these aims, I implemented over two fifteen-week interventions explicit teaching of evaluative resources, focusing on Attitude and Graduation within Appraisal to the same group of TEFL first-year teacher education students at Quy Nhon University, Vietnam. The explicit teaching of Attitude and Graduation followed the teaching sequences using the teaching-learning model I adapted based on integrating the Scaffolding interaction cycle (Martin & Rose, 2005) into the text-based cycle of teaching and learning (Feez & De Silva Joyce, 2012). I also adopted Appraisal as the coding scheme and the UAM Corpus Tool developed by Michael O‟Donnell (2013) as an electronic linguistics annotation tool for investigating affordances of Attitude and Graduation resources in reading texts and in students‟ writing. The study found that before the interventions, the students from both intervention and non-intervention groups had similar limited repertoires for evaluation expressions, which were reflected through their repetition of a restricted number of different instantiations for Attitude and frequent use of basic isolated grammatical items for Graduation. After the interventions, however, there was a significant development of the intervention students (IS) compared to the non-intervention students (NS) in Attitude and Graduation deployment. The IS employed not only more numerous different instantiations for Attitude, but also a more diverse range of semantic infusion, grammatical and lexical items for Graduation. More importantly, these IS could provide linguistic descriptions of some Appraisal aspects and employ their metaknowledge of Appraisal to talk about the development of their own deployment of Attitude and Graduation across the writing tests. Of particular interest is the impressive improvement of the low achieving IS to approximate the performance of the high achieving IS and even to overtake the performance of the high achieving NS. This empirical study has made a professional innovation to teaching pedagogies in that it adapted the teaching-learning model for explicit teaching of evaluation based on combining the Scaffolding interaction cycle (Martin & Rose, 2005) and the text-based cycle of teaching and learning (Feez & De Silva Joyce, 2012). It also has important professional implications in fundamental aspects of TEFL such as shifts in policies, professional development, teaching practices, English textbook design and English test assessment in the context of teaching and learning EFL in Vietnam. In terms of policy shift, it raises a call for review of several aspects of TEFL such as current teaching practices, curriculum, resources and teachers‟ expertise. With regard to professional development, it alerts university English teacher educators and practising teachers of English to be aware of the necessity to equip themselves with knowledge about English language and update with relevant pedagogical approaches in their lifelong professional development. In relation to English textbook design, evaluative language was found to be inadequately attended to in Solutions Intermediate and Solutions Upper-Intermediate (Falla & Davies, 2013a, 2013b), the textbooks of English being used in most tertiary institutions in Vietnam. The compensatory additional resources provided in the intervention can serve to inform curriculum designers and textbook editors of the need to incorporate intentionally selected reading texts and thoughtfully designed activities with the aim to make evaluative language more explicit. Regarding English language teaching, the study indicated the poor repertoires of evaluation expressions of even advanced students of English in Vietnam, and it demonstrated that the restricted repertoires of the students could be developed through implementing the courses I designed with various activities to engage students such as multimodal texts and video recording of student improvised drama and their reflective review of their work on the videos. In terms of assessment of English, the study draws attention to the need for test designers to include evaluative language within assessment criteria and make it an explicit requirement in designated test questions. These implications are expected to bridge the gap between teaching-learning experience in the English classroom, criteria in English assessment tests, and real-life English language demands.

The current study examined the validity of classroom-based English assessment in the elementary school context using a validity analysis framework, which includes cognitive, instructional, and inferential validity components. As a case study, it evaluated two unit achievement tests administered to 142 6th grade students. Three types of data (i.e., the curricular learning goals, instructional contents covered for the two units, and two unit achievement tests and scores) were collected and analyzed for the classroom-based assessment validity argument. Results revealed that the two tests were relevant to the curriculum and instruction; however, there was a lack of correspondence between the two tests and the curriculum (cognitive validity); moreover, the instructional contents were not sufficiently covered with representative test items (instructional validity). While the test items functioned as expected, students showed a wide range of achievement, which was not expected in the achievement test context (inferential validity). The findings suggest implications for the development and use of classroom-based assessment for young language learners.

The significance of this study is to improve the assessment quality of future online English as a Foreign Language (EFL) writing tests through Blackboard, a learning management system (LMS), and to avert any potential inclusion of odd items. This study aims to examine the Blackboard (Bb) test quality at the Preparatory Year Program (PYP) in an English for Specific Purposes (ESP) writing course using item analysis and a questionnaire of EFL teachers’ practices for constructing a good quality test. To achieve the study objectives, 30 objective-type questions from the final Technical Writing course examination, attempted by 97 level two preparatory year students, were analyzed to check three indices: difficulty index, discrimination index, and distractor efficiency. In addition, a questionnaire was administered to rate the EFL teachers’ (N=50) practices of constructing their technical writing test for the final examination in terms of good quality test norms. The item analysis has shown that the test proved to be valid and reliable; however, it was easy. Many items had no discrimination indices, and many distractors were not functioning. The analysis of the questionnaire data showed that there was a high level of commitment by the EFL teachers to apply the required norms for constructing a good quality language test. Genders and teaching experience had no significant differences in the EFL teachers’ degree of the test norms employment. In the light of the findings, recommendations and further research are suggested.
 
 Keywords: Blackboard, evaluation, good quality test, Saudi EFL writing context, teacher-made test

In 2004 national educational standards for chemistry were implemented in Germany. While the standards describe different competencies to be reached after grade 10, no compulsory contents are defined. The contents are defined by the different German states individually. This means that there are no defined common topics taught in all states that can be used for test items for the evaluation of the standards. As a result, two different types of test items are developed based on a model of competence. One type of items contains chemical content information that can be used to solve the task. The other type of items does not contain this information. The two types of items have different advantages and disadvantages; the first type are more dependent on the reading ability of the students, but their use leads to a fairer test across the different states, whereas the second type are more related to chemical content knowledge but are less fair. The two types of items are compared according to the item difficulty, correlations to reading skills, intelligence and chemical content knowledge. The results of this study can be generalized to other assessments using a similar design.