EFL Learners’ Critical Literacy Development Using Sketchbooks

Differential effects of EFL proficiency and mode on noun phrase use

Foreign language learners without an immersion experience are advised to partake in activities that enhance their language learning outside the classroom. The objectives of this study were to explore which forms of language practice English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners engage in outside the classroom and whether this practice increases proficiency. The results showed that the most frequent forms of practice were academic activities (e.g., reading academic textbooks) and recreational activities (e.g., watching movies). In this study, EFL proficiency in participants correlated positively with age. Those with higher proficiency listened to English more frequently by watching movies in their free time than those with lower proficiency. We conclude that exposure to audiovisual material, such as movies, is an effective way to reinforce language learning outside the EFL classroom. Older learners with high English language proficiency reported practicing English more frequently in their free time, so watching movies may constitute an effective means of increasing L2 exposure outside the classroom.

Examining the relations between semantic memory structure and creativity in second language

Interlanguage pragmatics (ILP) studies substantiate the teachability of some aspects of second language (L2) pragmatics. However, there are controversies over the most effective instructional methods. Therefore, following a comparison group design, the present study aims to investigate the relative efficacy of two conditions of output-production task repetition on high- and low-level English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ production of speech acts. The main effects of the instructional conditions, EFL proficiency level, and the potential interaction between them are examined. Two classes of English-major students take speech act lessons involving output-generation task repetition as follows: (1) the implicit task-repetition (ITR) group is provided with visually enhanced input plus a consciousness raising task before repeating the output-generation tasks, and (2) the explicit task-repetition (ETR) group is provided with input plus metapragmatic information before repeating the output-generation tasks. The learners’ speech act production is assessed through a written discourse completion test (WDCT) across a pretest and a posttest. The results demonstrate significant gains for both groups from the pretest to the posttest. Moreover, the ETR group significantly outperforms the ITR group in the posttest. Furthermore, EFL proficiency level is found to have a significant effect on learners’ speech act production, with high-level learners outperforming low-level learners. The results reveal no significant interaction between the effects of instructional condition and EFL proficiency level. Regarding pedagogical implications, the findings attest the efficacy of output-generation task repetition in L2 speech acts instruction, particularly when task repetition is coupled with explicit instruction.

Interlanguage pragmatics (ILP) studies substantiate the teachability of some aspects of second language (L2) pragmatics. However, there are controversies over the most effective instructional methods. Therefore, following a comparison group design, the present study aims to investigate the relative efficacy of two conditions of output-production task repetition on high- and low-level English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ production of speech acts. The main effects of the instructional conditions, EFL proficiency level, and the potential interaction between them are examined. Two classes of English-major students take speech act lessons involving output-generation task repetition as follows: (1) the implicit task-repetition (ITR) group is provided with visually enhanced input plus a consciousness raising task before repeating the output-generation tasks, and (2) the explicit task-repetition (ETR) group is provided with input plus metapragmatic information before repeating the output-generation tasks. The learners’ speech act production is assessed through a written discourse completion test (WDCT) across a pretest and a posttest. The results demonstrate significant gains for both groups from the pretest to the posttest. Moreover, the ETR group significantly outperforms the ITR group in the posttest. Furthermore, EFL proficiency level is found to have a significant effect on learners’ speech act production, with high-level learners outperforming low-level learners. The results reveal no significant interaction between the effects of instructional condition and EFL proficiency level. Regarding pedagogical implications, the findings attest the efficacy of output-generation task repetition in L2 speech acts instruction, particularly when task repetition is coupled with explicit instruction.

Research shows many problems and ambiguities of second language acquisition (SLA), which have made learners and readers worldwide unsatisfied. Therefore, this study attempts to highlight theories and research that have comprehensive explanations of the problems and ambiguities of second language acquisition, which learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) face while learning a second or foreign language. After that, the study discusses a framework discussion on second language acquisition (SLA). It discusses the historical background of SLA research on different decades and the most notable views of different scholars throughout the past decades on second language acquisition. This study is a longitudinal research that identifies the advantages that could be an assist to English as Foreign Language (EFL) learners. Longitudinal research is always based on the qualitative method. This study's data is based on the qualitative method that collects views, opinions, materials, and earlier studies on second language acquisition (SLA). It reveals the most significant theories which precisely connected to second language acquisition (SLA) and largely to applied linguistics. The study resulted in that: (i) second language acquisition still has several doubts and ambiguities in its many different aspects, (ii). In this study, the researcher summarizes second language acquisition (SLA) research's main goals and draws comparisons on the scholars' dissimilarities between language learning and second language acquisition (SLA) on different perceptions that could give insights towards learning of second and foreign languages easily by the English as Foreign Language (EFL) learners.

How can EFL innovation thrive amid systemic constraints? This question guides Issue 31, which offers a concise yet diverse overview of current research on English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching across varied geographical and educational contexts. Although the studies come from realities in countries as diverse as Colombia, Iran, Costa Rica, Ethiopia, Turkey, Kazakhstan, and China, they share a common concern: understanding and improving EFL students’ learning processes while analyzing the role of pedagogical practices, educational policies, and teacher training in that endeavor. All contributions explore strategies that strengthen student engagement and foster skill transfer across reading, writing, speaking, and critical literacy. Approaches such as the Flipped Instruction Model (FIM), Data-Driven Learning (DDL), culturally oriented texts, sketchbooks, and the pedagogical use of AI chatbots demonstrate their potential to bridge theory and practice. These innovations, however, only succeed when aligned with institutional, material, and sociocultural realities. Systemic barriers—national exams focused on grammar, large class sizes, low salaries, lack of authentic materials, insufficient preparation for inclusion, and limited knowledge about supporting students with visual disabilities—remain significant obstacles to implementation. Technology and Emerging Pedagogies The integration of Artificial Intelligence into language teaching is a recurring theme. In “Chatbot-Driven Writing Practice: A Boon or a Bust for EFL Learners?”, Emrah Ekmekçi and Eylül Karabulut examine the impact of general-purpose chatbots on L2 writing, signaling a shift toward technology-driven learning. Similarly, Laura Ordoñez reviews B. Mairéad Pratschke’s book introducing “Generativism”, a model that redefines the relationship between teachers, students, and digital tools—an approach that could reshape classroom dynamics. Methodological Innovations In Iran, “Effects of Flipped Model of Instruction on Reading Comprehension and Attitude of Iranian Non-English Majors” by Samaneh Bahrami demonstrates that the FIM significantly improves reading comprehension and attitudes among university students, using audio files as pre-class resources for accessible, “on-the-go” learning. Complementing this, “Effects of Data-Driven Learning Approach on EFL Learners’ Speaking Engagement” by Getasew Chanie and Amare Tesfie Birhan shows how DDL fosters active oral participation, reinforcing the value of learner autonomy. Policy-Practice Gaps and Inclusion The disconnect between policy and practice is evident in “Bridging the Gap: Insights on CLT from Iranian EFL Pre-Service and In-Service Teachers” by Alireza Karbalaei, which reveals that despite official adoption of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), systemic constraints—grammar-focused exams, overcrowded classrooms, insufficient training, and low salaries—limit its implementation. Inclusion emerges as another critical theme. “Pedagogical Mediation for Visually Impaired Students” by May Ling González-Ruiz, Ana Cristina Solís Solís, and Lindsay Chaves-Fernández analyzes strategies in Costa Rican universities to support visually impaired learners, underscoring the global need for inclusive frameworks. Similarly, “Ready or Not? Preparedness of Pre-service EFL Teachers to Inclusive Education: A Cross-cultural Comparative Study from Türkiye, Kazakhstan, and China” by Erkan Yüce, Olufemi Timothy Adigun, Meruyert Seitova, Zeynep Çetin Köroğlu, and Yongliang Wang examines future teachers’ readiness for inclusive education across diverse contexts. Cultural Contextualization and Critical Literacy Context-sensitive materials remain essential. In Ethiopia, “Augmenting Students’ Reading Comprehension Using Source Culture-Oriented Texts: Eighth-Grade in Focus” by Getachew Seyoum Woldemariam and Abbi Lemma Wodajo demonstrates that culturally grounded texts enhance comprehension and engagement when traditional materials feel distant. Likewise, “EFL Learners’ Critical Literacy Development Using Sketchbooks” by Deisi Carolina Acevedo, Ana María Garcés Villa, and Mariana Pelaes López introduces sketchbooks as tools for fostering critical literacy in rural Colombian classrooms, addressing an overlooked skills gap. Looking Ahead These findings broaden the field and raise urgent questions for the future of EFL education. The growing presence of AI compels us to rethink instructional design, teacher training for responsible technology use, and the balance between human guidance and digital possibilities. Persistent challenges—policy-practice misalignment, inequitable working conditions, and lack of inclusive strategies—demand systemic coherence. Research on contextualized materials and critical approaches reminds us of the importance of connecting language teaching with students’ identities and realities. Issue 31 reaffirms that English language teaching is a field in constant transformation, where technological innovation, equity demands, and context-sensitive strategies converge. We invite readers to explore these approaches, test them in their classrooms, and share results with us (gist@unica.edu.co) —transforming passive reading into collaborative inquiry. As always, we thank our authors and reviewers for trusting GiST and supporting UNICA’s mission to transform society through education. Your contributions foster inclusive EFL classrooms worldwide and create tangible societal impact beyond publication.

Gender gaps in students’ foreign language proficiency self-assessment can negatively impact their educational careers and position in the labour market. We investigated how female and male students self-assess their English as a foreign language (EFL) proficiency in comparison to their EFL test scores. We further examined the potential differential effect of EFL class-related factors – having a teacher from abroad who is perceived as an English L1 teacher (PEL1T) and an excellent grade in EFL class – on females’ and males’ EFL proficiency self-assessment. Data were collected from 1,399 Czech lower secondary students, who were asked to assess their EFL proficiency on a 7-point rating scale ranging from None to Expert. Our results show that when comparing self-assessment of a female and a male with the same test score, the female would, on average, select a lower self-assessment value than the male. Also, having a PEL1T and having an excellent grade in EFL class are significantly positively associated with higher EFL proficiency self-assessment. However, these positive effects are smaller for females compared to males.

Today, it seems clear that the goal of English as a foreign language (EFL) teaching and learning in Colombia is to foster communicative ability. However, the role communication is usually given in classrooms, that of displaying previously taught language items, poses limitations on the value it might have for developing EFL proficiency. In this paper, we disagree with the assumption that communication can only take place when learnershave learned and defend the position that it might happen when learnersare learning. Our position is supported with grounded theoretical reflection as well as with data coming from the EFL class of a group of sixth graders during an ongoing action research project on the use of task-based learning (TBL) to develop citizenship and EFL proficiency.
 Received: 20-02-09 / Accepted: 14-09-09
 How to reference this article:
 Herazo, J. D., Jerez, S. & Lorduy Arellano, D. (2009). Learning through Communication in the EFL Class: Going beyond the PPP Approach. Íkala. 14(3), pp.117-136.

This pilot study explores the impact of linguistically informed formative assessments on English as a Foreign Language (EFL) proficiency among Greek learners, focusing on primary and secondary education establishments. Leveraging five years of research data collected between 2017 and 2022 from over 360 students across urban and rural regions in Greece, this study examines how integrating linguistic theory into formative assessments can enhance students' morphological and syntactical proficiency. Using a mixed-methods approach, both quantitative and qualitative data were gathered through standardized language proficiency tests, linguistically informed assessments, and semi-structured interviews with students and educators. The findings indicate that students exposed to these linguistically informed assessments demonstrate significant improvements in EFL proficiency, particularly in verb conjugation and sentence structure, with enhanced long-term retention and application in both written and spoken English. These results underscore the potential for linguistically informed formative assessments to be a powerful tool in EFL pedagogy, with implications for curriculum design and instructional practices in Greek educational settings. The study also identifies areas for future research, including broader applications across diverse educational contexts and the scalability of such assessments.<p> </p><p><strong> Article visualizations:</strong></p><p><img src="/-counters-/soc/0760/a.php" alt="Hit counter" /></p>

<p><b>The way English is taught at all educational levels has been a matter of big concern in Vietnam. This is clearly shown by the National Foreign Languages Project 2020 (phases 2008-2016 and 2017-2025) which aims to renovate all aspects of English teaching including teaching facilities, teacher proficiency, curriculum, assessment methods, and learning outcomes, particularly in tertiary English teaching (Vietnamese Government, 2008). Teachers’ classroom English communication is an important part of English teaching and learning; thus, closely examining how they use classroom English and communication strategies is a necessity. However, most international and Vietnamese research of English communication in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching contexts has focused on the perspectives of learners, with limited attention given to the role of teachers. This thesis fills this gap by examining tertiary teachers’ practices of English communication in relation to learners’ perspectives. </b></p><p>This study investigated how English communication was used by five Vietnamese lecturers of English who were teaching non-English major students at two public colleges in Vietnam. This research adopted a mixed methods and qualitative dominant approach. The data were collected via classroom observations, survey questionnaires, individual interviews with lecturers, and focus group interviews with students. Findings reveal that, while most of the lecturers said they used more English than Vietnamese, classroom observation and student interview data suggested that they spent marginally less time speaking English than Vietnamese. Both lecturers and students shared viewpoints on the benefits of an English-only approach, but many did not think this approach would be applicable and effective in classes. Both lecturers and students believed that lecturers’ choice and use of classroom language was predominantly influenced by the desire to ensure comprehension and to provide concern to students. Findings further show seven key communication strategies used by the lecturers, with humour having not been previously identified in communication strategy research. </p><p>The lecturers’ roles as language users and language analysts are assumed to be mutually interconnected to lead to their practices of communication strategies; and the role of language teachers with their pedagogical learner knowledge shaped their perceptions on the functions and usages of communication strategies. Mismatches between the lecturers’ and students’ perceptions of classroom English communication were also identified. Those mismatches were caused by a limitation on communication at the interpersonal level between the lecturers and students and the particularly hierarchical and formal teacher-learner relationship in Vietnamese culture. To minimise those perceptual gaps, it is recommended that lecturers need to consider the perspectives of students to know what they expect to learn and how to learn that effectively. Lecturers’ classroom communication styles and strategies are also shown to be important to help alleviating those perceptual mismatches. It is also suggested that EFL classrooms should offer features of a supportive and motivating environment such as a well-designed classroom layout, teachers’ systematic corrective feedback, less asymmetrical power, and plentiful interaction opportunities. In the communicative and learner-centred teaching approaches, EFL teaching needs to be innovative to better engage and motivate students and to create more learning opportunities. </p><p>Taken as a whole, this thesis suggests that socially affective classroom culture plays an important role in students’ foreign language (FL) and second language (L2) learning and development. A positive lecturer-student relationship, a supportive learning environment, and interaction opportunities are the three main factors that can mediate and construct students’ FL/L2 learning. This study also emphasises the essential role of lecturers in shortening the perceptual gaps between them and students and opening learning space for students. Lecturers’ classroom communications strategies are used for communicative, affective, motivational, and pedagogical purposes and can be converted into students’ learning strategies with mediation tools. To improve EFL teaching and learning, this study also recommends an English-dominant teaching policy, job-oriented and communicative-based syllabus and assessment, and frequent teacher self-reflection and students’ feedback. Lastly, the research has useful implications for EFL teacher education and proficiency development. </p>

<p><b>The way English is taught at all educational levels has been a matter of big concern in Vietnam. This is clearly shown by the National Foreign Languages Project 2020 (phases 2008-2016 and 2017-2025) which aims to renovate all aspects of English teaching including teaching facilities, teacher proficiency, curriculum, assessment methods, and learning outcomes, particularly in tertiary English teaching (Vietnamese Government, 2008). Teachers’ classroom English communication is an important part of English teaching and learning; thus, closely examining how they use classroom English and communication strategies is a necessity. However, most international and Vietnamese research of English communication in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching contexts has focused on the perspectives of learners, with limited attention given to the role of teachers. This thesis fills this gap by examining tertiary teachers’ practices of English communication in relation to learners’ perspectives. </b></p><p>This study investigated how English communication was used by five Vietnamese lecturers of English who were teaching non-English major students at two public colleges in Vietnam. This research adopted a mixed methods and qualitative dominant approach. The data were collected via classroom observations, survey questionnaires, individual interviews with lecturers, and focus group interviews with students. Findings reveal that, while most of the lecturers said they used more English than Vietnamese, classroom observation and student interview data suggested that they spent marginally less time speaking English than Vietnamese. Both lecturers and students shared viewpoints on the benefits of an English-only approach, but many did not think this approach would be applicable and effective in classes. Both lecturers and students believed that lecturers’ choice and use of classroom language was predominantly influenced by the desire to ensure comprehension and to provide concern to students. Findings further show seven key communication strategies used by the lecturers, with humour having not been previously identified in communication strategy research. </p><p>The lecturers’ roles as language users and language analysts are assumed to be mutually interconnected to lead to their practices of communication strategies; and the role of language teachers with their pedagogical learner knowledge shaped their perceptions on the functions and usages of communication strategies. Mismatches between the lecturers’ and students’ perceptions of classroom English communication were also identified. Those mismatches were caused by a limitation on communication at the interpersonal level between the lecturers and students and the particularly hierarchical and formal teacher-learner relationship in Vietnamese culture. To minimise those perceptual gaps, it is recommended that lecturers need to consider the perspectives of students to know what they expect to learn and how to learn that effectively. Lecturers’ classroom communication styles and strategies are also shown to be important to help alleviating those perceptual mismatches. It is also suggested that EFL classrooms should offer features of a supportive and motivating environment such as a well-designed classroom layout, teachers’ systematic corrective feedback, less asymmetrical power, and plentiful interaction opportunities. In the communicative and learner-centred teaching approaches, EFL teaching needs to be innovative to better engage and motivate students and to create more learning opportunities. </p><p>Taken as a whole, this thesis suggests that socially affective classroom culture plays an important role in students’ foreign language (FL) and second language (L2) learning and development. A positive lecturer-student relationship, a supportive learning environment, and interaction opportunities are the three main factors that can mediate and construct students’ FL/L2 learning. This study also emphasises the essential role of lecturers in shortening the perceptual gaps between them and students and opening learning space for students. Lecturers’ classroom communications strategies are used for communicative, affective, motivational, and pedagogical purposes and can be converted into students’ learning strategies with mediation tools. To improve EFL teaching and learning, this study also recommends an English-dominant teaching policy, job-oriented and communicative-based syllabus and assessment, and frequent teacher self-reflection and students’ feedback. Lastly, the research has useful implications for EFL teacher education and proficiency development. </p>

This article examines an effort to support critical literacy in an English as a foreign language (EFL) setting by analyzing one college EFL reading classroom in which students read and responded to articles fromThe New Yorker.Data include transcribed audiotapes of classroom interaction and interviews with students, classroom materials, and response papers to the focal news article. Using these data, the research identifies (a) how critical literacy was employed in the EFL classroom, (b) students' critical engagement with the text through interaction and writing, and (c) benefits and challenges of employing critical literacy in an EFL setting. Results show that when taught to be critical readers of the text, these EFL participants were able to actively use linguistic resources from the article as well as their own cultural and personal experience to support their ideas and raise questions. Contrary to previous notions that language learners tend to be passive readers of information, the students in the current study actively voiced their opinions through discussion and response papers. The study suggests that newspaper and magazine articles can be important pedagogical tools for promoting critical thinking in the EFL reading classroom. Several challenges and limitations are discussed.

<p><b>The way English is taught at all educational levels has been a matter of big concern in Vietnam. This is clearly shown by the National Foreign Languages Project 2020 (phases 2008-2016 and 2017-2025) which aims to renovate all aspects of English teaching including teaching facilities, teacher proficiency, curriculum, assessment methods, and learning outcomes, particularly in tertiary English teaching (Vietnamese Government, 2008). Teachers’ classroom English communication is an important part of English teaching and learning; thus, closely examining how they use classroom English and communication strategies is a necessity. However, most international and Vietnamese research of English communication in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching contexts has focused on the perspectives of learners, with limited attention given to the role of teachers. This thesis fills this gap by examining tertiary teachers’ practices of English communication in relation to learners’ perspectives. </b></p><p>This study investigated how English communication was used by five Vietnamese lecturers of English who were teaching non-English major students at two public colleges in Vietnam. This research adopted a mixed methods and qualitative dominant approach. The data were collected via classroom observations, survey questionnaires, individual interviews with lecturers, and focus group interviews with students. Findings reveal that, while most of the lecturers said they used more English than Vietnamese, classroom observation and student interview data suggested that they spent marginally less time speaking English than Vietnamese. Both lecturers and students shared viewpoints on the benefits of an English-only approach, but many did not think this approach would be applicable and effective in classes. Both lecturers and students believed that lecturers’ choice and use of classroom language was predominantly influenced by the desire to ensure comprehension and to provide concern to students. Findings further show seven key communication strategies used by the lecturers, with humour having not been previously identified in communication strategy research. </p><p>The lecturers’ roles as language users and language analysts are assumed to be mutually interconnected to lead to their practices of communication strategies; and the role of language teachers with their pedagogical learner knowledge shaped their perceptions on the functions and usages of communication strategies. Mismatches between the lecturers’ and students’ perceptions of classroom English communication were also identified. Those mismatches were caused by a limitation on communication at the interpersonal level between the lecturers and students and the particularly hierarchical and formal teacher-learner relationship in Vietnamese culture. To minimise those perceptual gaps, it is recommended that lecturers need to consider the perspectives of students to know what they expect to learn and how to learn that effectively. Lecturers’ classroom communication styles and strategies are also shown to be important to help alleviating those perceptual mismatches. It is also suggested that EFL classrooms should offer features of a supportive and motivating environment such as a well-designed classroom layout, teachers’ systematic corrective feedback, less asymmetrical power, and plentiful interaction opportunities. In the communicative and learner-centred teaching approaches, EFL teaching needs to be innovative to better engage and motivate students and to create more learning opportunities. </p><p>Taken as a whole, this thesis suggests that socially affective classroom culture plays an important role in students’ foreign language (FL) and second language (L2) learning and development. A positive lecturer-student relationship, a supportive learning environment, and interaction opportunities are the three main factors that can mediate and construct students’ FL/L2 learning. This study also emphasises the essential role of lecturers in shortening the perceptual gaps between them and students and opening learning space for students. Lecturers’ classroom communications strategies are used for communicative, affective, motivational, and pedagogical purposes and can be converted into students’ learning strategies with mediation tools. To improve EFL teaching and learning, this study also recommends an English-dominant teaching policy, job-oriented and communicative-based syllabus and assessment, and frequent teacher self-reflection and students’ feedback. Lastly, the research has useful implications for EFL teacher education and proficiency development. </p>

There has been a steady interest in investigating the relationship between strategy use and English as a foreign language (EFL) test performance. Despite numerous studies on strategy use, the relationship between the two is still not clear. This paper reports on a study that investigated the use of reading strategies in the Secondary Education Examination English reading test and the relationship between reading strategy use and the test performance. A sample of 312 EFL learners studying at Grade 10 in Nepal participated in this study. They were asked to take the test and then respond to a reading strategy questionnaire. The quantitative software SPSS (version 20) was used to analyze the data. The results indicated that participants were active strategy users, and they used cognitive strategies more frequently than metacognitive strategies. A significant relationship was identified between reading strategy use and EFL proficiency; high-proficiency learners reported significantly higher use of reading strategies than moderate-proficiency learners, who in turn reported higher use of those strategies than their low-proficiency peers. Implications of these findings for EFL teaching and recommendations for further research are discussed.Journal of NELTA , Vol. 22, No. 1-2, 2017 December, Page: 39-52