Effects of Working Memory and Proficiency on Lexical Complexity in L2 Writing: A Case of Two Task Types

Issues in Applied Linguistics Vol.1 No. 2 Newbury House TOEFL Preparation Kit: Preparing for the TOEFL by Daniel B. Kennedy, Dorry Mann Kenyon, and Steven J. Matthiesen. New York: Newbury House, 1989. 262 pp. Newbury House TOEFL Preparation Newbury House, Preparing for the Test of Written English by Liz Hamp-Lyons. New York: Kit: 134 pp. Reviewed by Sara T. Gushing University of California, Los Angeles Recent research on the Educational Testing Service's Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) suggests that, while the TOEFL is a valid test of language proficiency, it tests only a limited range of communication skills and ignores many skills required by students in American university settings (Duran et al., 1985). There is also no clear evidence of any relationship between high TOEFL scores and academic achievement (Graham, 1987). Such findings raise questions about the appropriacy of using TOEFL preparation books in courses for university-bound ESL students, especially given the current orientation in academic-purpose language teaching to promote communicative competence rather than the sort of discrete language knowledge which is tested in many sections of the TOEFL. Indeed, conscientious teachers may wonder whether they are doing their students a disservice by spending class time on exercises specifically designed to raise TOEFL scores, at the expense of activities which promote the general academic skills needed at the university. At the same time, those language testing researchers concerned with the TOEFL's limitations might ask whether TOEFL preparation books do more harm than good since they perpetuate the status quo rather than encourage improvement of the TOEFL along the lines that some experts have suggested (Savignon, 1986; Larsen- Freeman, 1986) so as to increase its ability to measure communicative skills. The Newbury House TOEFL Preparation Kit is by no means radical in its attitude towards the TOEFL, but it does attempt to provide a partial answer to the first of these dilemmas. While the authors take a pragmatic approach toward the discrete-point sections of the TOEFL, they also emphasize those areas of the TOEFL which

Educative games are trending among students. Games can be used to support student learning. Difficulties in completing a TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language) can be helped by doing game exercises that are similar to the actual test conditions. The TOEFL learning method while playing the game becomes an interesting project, to see how students can use the game experience to master the skills needed for doing a TOEFL. In this study a mobile educative game application is created to understand the TOEFL test that has many features. The Tommy & Pokina TOEFL-Like App Game is one game that is expected to be used to improve students' TOEFL abilities. In seeing the results of the students' TOEFL as game players, the integration of games with information systems makes it easy for teachers to get the information quickly. This article shares how the information system help facilitate fast and good data management of the students' TOEFL results.

Pengabdian ini bertujuan untuk meningkatkan kompetensi guru bahasa Inggris di Kabupaten Merauke, Papua Selatan, melalui pelatihan Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). Kegiatan ini dilakukan sebagai respons terhadap kebutuhan peningkatan kualitas pengajaran bahasa Inggris di daerah tersebut. Pelatihan diikuti oleh guru dari berbagai sekolah yang ada di Kabupaten Merauke berpartisipasi secara aktif. Program ini mencakup sesi teori dan praktik yang dirancang untuk memperdalam pemahaman peserta tentang struktur dan strategi menghadapi TOEFL, serta meningkatkan kemampuan bahasa Inggris mereka secara keseluruhan. Metode evaluasi yang digunakan meliputi pre-test dan post-test TOEFL, serta kuesioner kepuasan peserta. Hasil evaluasi menunjukkan peningkatan signifikan dalam skor TOEFL para guru setelah pelatiha. Selain itu, peserta juga melaporkan peningkatan kepercayaan diri dalam kemampuan bahasa Inggris mereka dan mengapresiasi materi pelatihan yang relevan dan aplikatif. Kata Kunci: Pelatihan TOEFL, Kompetensi Guru Bahasa Inggris, Kabupaten Merauke Abstract The present community service aims to improve the competence of English teachers in Merauke Regency, South Papua, through Test of English as a Foreign Language training (TOEFL). This activity was conducted in response to the need to improve the quality of English teaching in the region. The training was actively participated in by teachers from various schools in Merauke Regency. This program includes theory and practice sessions designed to deepen participants' understanding of the structure and strategies for facing the TOEFL, as well as to improve their overall English language skills. The evaluation methods used include TOEFL pre-tests and post-tests, as well as participant satisfaction questionnaires. The evaluation results show a significant increase in the teachers' TOEFL scores after the training. Additionally, participants also reported an increase in confidence in their English language skills and appreciated the relevant and applicable training materials Keywords: TOEFL training, English teacher competence, Merauke Regency

Owned and administered by the Educational Testing Service (ETS), the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), taken by approximately 600,000 students a year, influences access to or exclusion from colleges and universities in North America. This article provides background information about the TOEFL and ETS; describes the development of ETS tests of composition for native speakers of English and of the most recent addition to the TOEFL testing program, the Test of Written English (TWE); and explores seven areas of concern with respect to the TWE: the comparability of topic types; the lack of topic choice; the lack of distinction between graduate and undergraduate students; the scoring system; the question of what the test measures; the question of whether both the TOEFL and the TWE are needed; and the backwash effect of the TWE, including the proliferation of coaching and test-specific instructional materials. The article urges careful scrutiny of new developments in ETS testing as they affect our students, and ends with seven recommendations for action.

IMPROVEMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE COMPETENCE FOR UNMA BANTEN LECTURERS THROUGH TOEFL STRATEGIES AND PREDICTIONS TRAINING. English language training activity in community service is intended to improve English language competence, especially when answering questions in the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) for lecturers at Mathla'ul Anwar University (Unma), Banten. This training was conducted in the form of a short one-day training with 12 lecturers taking place in the Unma Banten hall. The material covered was TOEFL at glance, 12 Strategies for Listening comprehen-tones, 25 strategies for Structure and written expressions, and 6 strategies for reading comprehension. The training begins with a pre-test and ends with a post-test TOEFL questions as well as a prediction of scores and how to calculate TOEFL scores obtained by all trainees. The methods used in community service activities were lecturing, question and answer, discussion and demonstration methods. Based on observations during the community service activities, several positive results were obtained including: (1) The participants showed very high attention to the training material, (2) The participants showed a positive reaction to the material in answering the questions about the questions and how to calculate their values in the training, (3) The participants actively asked questions and revealed the problems they were experiencing. during this time and they are eager to implement strategies/skills in doing on the TOEFL problem, (4) The participants looked serious and confident in discussing the exercises on the TOEFL questions. The result of this community service is the increasing insight of Unma Banten lecturers about the TOEFL and how to answer questions and how to calculate the TOEFL score. In addition, they are more confident in using English and are motivated to learn English well.

In studies on second language writing, linguistic complexity exhibited by learners has long been regarded as being indicative of writing proficiency. However, there are relatively scant studies focusing on the diversity and structural elaboration of complexity in L2 production data that are extracted from high-stakes tests [such as Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) and International English Language Testing System (IELTS)]. Using a large-scale learner corpus collected from a TOEFL (internet-based test (iBT), this study aims to explore the extent to which the three dimensions of linguistic complexity, syntactic, lexical, and morphological complexity, are associated with human scoring in high-stakes tests. In addition, we also tend to tap into within-genre topic effects on the production of complexity measures by learners. To this end, a total of 1,002 writing samples were collected from a TOEFL11 corpus, and six automated-coding instruments were used to investigate the variations of complexity among Chinese English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. The results from the correlation analysis, multiple linear regression, and independent sample t-tests indicated that there was not a linear correlation between the majority of linguistic complexity and human-rated score levels and that proficiency among Chinese EFL learners did not signal a discriminative power in their language production. In the meantime, strong within-proficiency topic effects were found on the majority of measures in the syntactic, lexical, and morphological dimensions.

Despite the growing international influence of the TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language), no articles have been published on how the test is actually developed by the Educational Testing Service (ETS). In this article, the author, who worked in the Test Development department at ETS from 1984 to 1987, seeks to demystify the TOEFL reading test at both a descriptive and theoretical level. First, the author draws on data from a case study of a reading test she developed in 1986 to illustrate the technical rigor with which the test is developed, and to raise questions about its theoretical adequacy. Second, the author draws on the theory of genre proposed by Kress (1989, 1991) to (a) illustrate how the unequal relationship between test makers and test takers predisposes TOEFL candidates to a particular reading of TOEFL texts; and (b) locate the TOEFL reading test within the larger social context of the TOEFL internationally, where competence in English means access to power. The author concludes that the TOEFL–2000 test development team at ETS, who are currently reviewing the test, needs to address the washback effect of the test in consultation with both ESOL teachers and TOEFL candidates internationally.

Several analyses are presented on the relationships among the Test of Spoken English (TSE), the Test of Written English (TWE), and the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). The multivariate prediction of each of these tests from the scores on the others is very accurate. Factor analysis reveals two prominent factors. One accounts mainly for oral proficiencies measured by the TSE, and the other accounts for the abilities measured by the TOEFL and the TWE. Scores on the TOEFL listening comprehension, TSE Grammar, TSE overall comprehensibility and the TWE share considerable variance with both factors. The factors may be related to different cognitive skills required to answer different types of questions.

TOEFL training with the Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition method aims to help lecturers and students at several universities in West Nusa Tenggara to increase the TOEFL (Test of English as a foreign language) score during the pandemic. The difficulty of determining the correct method and media during a pandemic for students and lecturers to achieve the ideal TOEFL is the main reason for carrying out this community service. This community service aims to provide knowledge and readiness to face the TOEFL (Test of English as Foreign Language). For students and lecturers in West Nusa Tenggara. This community service is carried out online using zoom technology as a learning medium for one month. The target community is the campus community, students and lecturers from various universities in West Nusa Tenggara. The method used in this community service is the Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) method, where participants are divided into several groups, then given tips and strategies in answering the TOEFL test. Each group discussed and exchanged ideas in answering all the questions in the TOEFL. The cost of this community service activity is entirely sourced from the service implementation team. After implementing this community service activity, participants have the ability and readiness and a quite significant value than before. This can be proven by the results of the Post Test Participants after participating in the training showed very positive changes. Keywords: CIRC, covid-19, ideal value, TOEFL training

TOEFL training by implementing the Presentation, Practice and Production (PPP) method aims to help lecturers at the West Nusa Tenggara university in an effort to increase the TOEFL (Test of English as a foreign language) score. The difficulty of determining the right method and media to get the TOEFL score and score according to the cooled is the main reason for implementing this community service. This community service aims to provide not only knowledge but also readiness to face the TOEFL (Test of English as Foreign Language) exam for lecturers at the University of West Nusa Tenggara. The method used in this community service is the Presentation, Practice and Production (PPP) method. As the name implies, the PPP method prioritizes in-depth explanation of the material by the lecturer or tutor and then asks the service participants to practice working on questions and generate answers and analyzes from the participants. The results of this community service activity received a positive response from the partners, in this case the University of West Nusa Tenggara, especially because this program was in accordance with their needs. This form of positive response can be seen from the active participation, both from partners and from training participants. The motivation of the trainees to take part in the training process was quite enthusiastic. This indicates a desire to improve their ability to master the TOEFL in depth

The present study investigates the effect of task repetition and individual differences on Vietnamese English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ lexical use and fluency in oral task performance. The study adopts a within-subjects design with forty students performing the same narrative task twice. Students also completed two prior vocabulary knowledge tests (i.e., a receptive size test and a productive level test) and two working memory tests (i.e., a backward-span task and a Vietnamese-version operation-span task). Lexical complexity was measured in two aspects (i.e., lexical sophistication and lexical diversity). Fluency was assessed in terms of articulation rate. Unlike previous studies, our study surprisingly did not reveal an effect of task repetition on lexical complexity and fluency. Interestingly, prior vocabulary knowledge and working memory appeared to be good predictors of learners’ lexical complexity and fluency.

The ESL (English as a Second Language) field has traditionally focused on foreign students who come to the United States to learn English to pursue an academic degree. Those students gain English proficiency, earn a degree, and often return home to be leaders in their countries. The author has titled these students first wave learners. As those newly trained leaders return home, they are met by a group of potential followers who do not speak English. These potential followers, or second wave learners, need to acquire English skills to join with their leaders in accessing professional and technical resources and communicating with other partners in the development process. The second wave is less well educated, will not earn a college degree or study English. First wave learners have traditionally taken the TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language), which is internationally recognized yet inappropriate for the second wave learners due to its focus on academic English. The G-TELP (General Test of English as a Foreign Language) is designed to test the real world English skills required by second wave learners. This dissertation examines the relationship between scores earned by subjects on the G-TELP and the TOEFL. The G-TELP is a criterion-referenced test while the TOEFL is a norm-referenced test. 281 subjects were tested at five university-based ESL institutes throughout the country. Subjects were given the G-TELP approximately two weeks before taking the TOEFL to determine the concurrent validity of the tests. A moderate positive relationship was found between overall G-TELP and TOEFL scores, and for the listening and vocabulary/reading section scores as well. The findings suggest that while there is significant overlap in the English language knowledge and skills tested by the G-TELP and TOEFL, the tests do assess different types of English proficiency. It is hoped that the information gained through this study will support the adoption of G-TELP abroad for testing a new group of English language learners in Third World countries who are essential to the economic, social and political development of the region. (Abstract shortened with permission of author.)

The Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), produced by the Educational Testing Service (ETS), has been in use in institutions of higher American education since the 1960s as a means of measuring incoming international students' English proficiency. But like any test, the TOEFL is imperfect. For instance, whereas a high TOEFL score may be sufficient to admit an international student to an American graduate school, many colleges and universities require more rigorous proof of a student's English proficiency—often in the form of a passing score on a school-specific oral assessment—if he seeks employment as a Graduate Teaching Assistant (GTA). This is the case at the University of Virginia (UVa), where international graduate students are required to take the Speaking Proficiency English Assessment Kit (SPEAK) test if they apply for GTA positions; without a passing score, would-be GTAs are prohibited from interacting with undergraduate students in a teaching capacity. Academic departments sustain considerable risk extending offers of employment to GTAs based on the students' high TOEFL scores, as strong TOEFL performance does not guarantee a passing SPEAK test score. To mitigate this risk, forecasting models which use the TOEFL sub-scores of Speaking, Listening, Writing, and Reading to forecast SPEAK test outcome are applied. A student's sub-scores act as predictive inputs to each model, which outputs the posterior probability of his SPEAK test failure. Bayes Theorem provides the structure required to obtain this probability, and the multivariate meta-Gaussian distribution captures the stochastic dependence between the sub-scores. Therefore, these models are classified as Bayesian Meta-Gaussian Forecasters (BMGFs). Our findings are that (i) no combination of two, three, or four sub-scores is more informative than the Speaking sub-score alone, and (ii) in the absence of the Speaking sub-score, no combination of two, three, or four sub-scores is more informative than the Listening sub-score alone. Academic departments at UVa could use these probabilistic forecasts to better account for risk when dispensing offers of employment to potential GTAs.

Summary: The Canadian Psychological Association recently issued a position statement on the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). The purpose of the statement was to alert university officials to serious shortcomings in the use of the TOEFL as an admissions screening device for nonnative English speaking applicants. The present report, written in response to reactions from several universities, contains a detailed critique of the evidence cited by the Educational Testing Service in favor of the TOEFL and therefore provides further reason for exercising considerable caution when making admission decisions based primarily on TOEFL scores.

The Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) was administered to a group of 71 native speakers of English enrolled as freshmen at a western state university. Although as a group they scored low on ACT English, their scores on TOEFL were considerably above the mean of 34,774 foreign applicants to U.S. colleges. Moreover, their distributions were extremely narrow and highly skewed negatively, indicating that the test was much too easy for them and, consistent with its design, inadequate for differentiating among native Americans. Further support to this conclusion was found in the relatively low correlation (.64) between TOEFL and ACT English. Finally, plots of item difficulties for the American and foreign groups revealed a clear item x group interaction, which was interpreted to signify that the items had different meaning for the two groups. The plots also showed that most of the items in TOEFL were considerably easier for the American group than for the foreign group. These data all appear to support the hypothesis that TOEFL avoids the kinds of discriminations that are not intended for it, and are taken as clear evidence of the construct validity of the test.