Effects of spirulina (Arthrospira maxima) on teratogenicity and diclofenac-induced oxidative damage in Xenopus laevis

Abstract

Diclofenac (DCF) is a medication that is highly consumed and eliminated worldwide; it is constantly detected in the environment (primarily in water) and resists conventional degradation processes. It was included in the European Union watch list for the water framework. There are no regulations for this compound in Mexico. Therefore, this study evaluated the protective effect antioxidant activity of spirulina (Arthrospira maxima) against DCF-induced toxicity in Xenopus laevis at early life stages. X. laevis oocytes were exposed at the medium blastula stage for 96 h to three different mixtures: DCF+S 2 (149 µg L-1 DCF plus 2 mg L-1 spirulina), DCF+S 4 (149 µg L-1 DCF plus 4 mg L-1 spirulina), DCF+S 10 (149 µg L-1 DCF plus 10 mg L-1 spirulina). Other groups of oocytes were also exposed to DCF 149 µg L-1 and a control group. The mortality and malformation rate, growth, lipid peroxidation, and antioxidant enzymatic activity (superoxide dismutase and catalase) were determined. Spirulina at 4 and 10 mg L-1 reduced DCF-induced mortality by 80% and reduced malformations in severity and frequency. The abnormalities were malformations of the eye, tail, notochord, intestine, and rectum. All spirulina exposure groups showed an increase in total body size compared to those exposed to DCF.