Effects of salt stress on yield and quality traits of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) genotypes

Genotypic differences in agro-physiological, biochemical and isotopic responses to salinity stress in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) plants: Prospects for salinity tolerance and yield stability

Inconsistent reports exist on the relationships between key agronomic traits and maize yield. We performed a multivariate analysis of yield and 10 agronomic traits in 59 hybrids to explore maize yields in mountainous areas. The yield per plant (YP) was significantly and positively correlated with kernel weight (KW), growth period (GP), and kernel row number (KRN). KW and KRN had positive effects on YP, whereas kernel rows per ear (KRE) had a negative effect. GP indirectly affected YP. GP, KW, KRN, and ear length (EL) showed the highest grey relational degree with YP. The first four principal components cumulatively accounted for 73.36% of variation. EL, KW, plant height (PH), ear height (EH), GP, KRN, and YP contributed positively to the variation, whereas KRE, shelling percentage (SP), bald-tip length (BTL), and ear girth (EG) contributed negatively. Based on trait similarity, the 59 maize hybrids were classified into two clusters, Clusters I and II. A total of 11 traits were grouped into four clusters, Clusters A–D. Cluster D included KW, GP, KRN, EL, EH, PH, and YP, and the 22 maize hybrids in Cluster I performed better in these traits. These results provide a theoretical basis for the breeding of high-yield maize varieties in mountainous areas.

A three-year field evaluation was conducted to assess the agronomic performance, trait associations, and diversity of 238 chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) genotypes from a global collection cultivated under the semi-arid conditions of South-East Kazakhstan. The trials, carried out across three growing seasons, recorded significant variation for plant height (PH), height to lowest pod (HLP), number of lateral branches (NLB), number of seeds per plant (NSP), yield per plant (YP), and thousand-seed weight (TSW). Analysis of variance revealed significant effects of genotype origin, seed type, and year for several traits, with strong genotype × environment interactions. Correlation analysis showed that YP was strongly and positively associated with TSW (r = 0.605) and moderately with NSP (r = 0.530), while NSP and TSW were negatively correlated, indicating a trade-off between seed size and seed number. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that the genotypes originating from the Middle East and Africa were primarily grouped with higher values for yield per plant (YP) and thousand-seed weight (TSW), whereas South Asian germplasm showed wide phenotypic dispersion, reflecting their broad variability. Kabulitype of chickpea seeds showed a strong association with yield-related traits, while Desi types revealed greater variability and a weaker association with seed size. A total of 24 perspective genotypes, such as ICC456, ICC637, ICC1392, ICC2065, ICC3362, and ICC3410, were identified as valuable candidates for breeding aimed at improving productivity and adaptability of chickpea in South-East Kazakhstan. Overall, these results enhance understanding of the diversity and interrelationships of agronomic traits in global chickpea germplasm and emphasize the breeding potential of selected genotypes for semi-arid regions.

Freshwater scarcity and salinity stress are major constraints for irrigated agriculture in the arid West Texas region. Alternative crops that are tolerant to salinity and less water‐intensive are needed for long‐term agricultural sustainability in this region. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a halophytic crop with its seed having high market value and that can be a potential substitute for traditional crops. However, its salinity tolerance is a variable trait among genotypes and was shown to differ with growth stages. This study evaluated 25 quinoa genotypes that are suitable for growing in this arid region for their salinity tolerance at germination stage and classified them based on their stress tolerance index (STI). A completely randomized factorial design was used with water salinity and quinoa genotypes as two factors. Quinoa seeds were subjected to salinity stress at 1, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 dS m−1, their germination determined for two weeks, and seedling growth was evaluated through biomass production. Results showed that germination decreased significantly (by 60%) across all genotypes as salinity increased, with zero germination at 30 dS m−1. All genotypes differed significantly across salinity levels, with percent germination ranging between 37–72%. Using hierarchical cluster analysis, 23GR, 130R, 124R, and 31P were identified as highly salt‐tolerant genotypes at seed germination. Seedling biomass also decreased with increasing salinity, but genotypical differences were not as pronounced as at the germination stage. We conclude that salinity tolerance at germination and seedling growth stages is indeed a variable trait among selected quinoa genotypes.

Phosphorus (P) deficiency is a prime factor limiting rice growth and yield around the globe. Understanding how plants respond to P starvation is very important for breeding varieties with enhanced P uptake and use efficiency. To assess the effect of low P stress on yield and yield contributing traits, an experiment was conducted using six rice genotypes applying two treatments (optimum and deficient P conditions). Data on yield and yield attributing traits viz., days to first flowering (DFF), days to maturity (DM), plant height (PH), number of total tillers/plant (NTTP), number of effective tillers/plant (NETP), panicle length (PL), 100-seed weight (100-SW) and yield per plant (YPP) were recorded. Analysis of variance showed highly significant variation among the genotypes (G), treatments (T) and G × T interaction. When compared with control, a significant reduction in yield and yield attributing traits was observed in most of the studied genotypes in response to low P stress. The highest reduction in YPP was recorded in BRRI dhan78 whereas the lowest reduction was observed in Binadhan-17. Principal component analysis revealed that the first three principal components explained 85.2% of the total variation. Yield per plant (g) showed significant positive correlation with PH, PL, NTTP and NETP whereas it showed significant negative correlation with DFF, DM and 100-SW. Based on stress tolerance indices Binadhan-17, BRRI dhan71 and BRRI dhan79 were categorized as tolerant genotypes and selected for cultivation in P deficient areas and are recommended for the genetic improvement of low P stress tolerance in rice.

BackgroundChickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is vital for global food security; however, its productivity is limited by genotype-environment interactions and restricted genetic diversity. This study dissected the genetic architecture of six agronomic traits in chickpea using genome-wide association studies (GWAS) to identify stable quantitative trait loci (QTLs).ResultsPhenotypic analysis of 238 chickpea accessions across three growing seasons revealed significant variation in plant height (PH), height to lowest pod (HLP), number of lateral branches (NLB), number of seeds per plant (NSP), thousand-seed weight (TSW), and yield per plant (YP). Broad-sense heritability (h2) ranged from 0.15 (NSP) to 0.88 (TSW). GWAS identified 40 stable QTLs, including major-effect loci on chromosomes 2 (Q_YP_2.1, R² = 0.45) and 4 (Q_TSW_4.1, R² = 0.22). Candidate genes linked to polyamine biosynthesis (LOC101508792) and carbohydrate metabolism (LOC101492955) were implicated.ConclusionsThe study highlights the potential of marker-assisted selection for enhancing chickpea resilience and productivity, particularly in drought-prone regions such as Kazakhstan.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12870-025-07749-3.

The aim of the present study was to select the best sowing time for two quinoa genotypes (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) grown in Ouargla, located in the Saharan region of Algeria. The adopted experimental device is of the random block type, comparing the effect of three sowing dates in 2018: October 16th, October 31st, and November 15th, on some vegetative growth parameters (number of seedlings raised, total number of plants, total fresh weight of plants, height of plants at panicle stage, number of branches per plant, average weight per plant), and yield parameters (number of panicles per plant, weight of the main panicle, weight of 1000 grains, and total weight of grains per square meter) of two quinoa genotypes: "Q102" Amarilla saccaca and "Giza". The obtained results show that the best sowing date for the "Q102" genotype is the first date (October 16th), which ranked first for most of the parameters studied. On the other hand, the best grain yield was observed by the second sowing date (October 31st). As for the "Giza1" genotype, no yield was observed for the first and second sowing dates, while a very low grain yield was observed only by the third sowing date. The results obtained make it possible to conclude the strong capacity of adaptation of genotype "Q102" to the edapho-climatic conditions of the south of Algeria compared to genotype "Giza1". In fact, this study shows that the production potential of quinoa in the Saharan regions is linked to both the genotype and the sowing date.

The study was designed to validate the previously reported 34 SSR markers using 78 chilli genotypes to detect significant trait specific markers as well as superior genotypes resistant to Phytophthora capsici root rot (PcRR). In this context, the identification of germplasm with higher yield per plant (YPP) leads to hype in stress tolerance index (STI) in genotypes, Chakwal3 (11.98), Greenfire (10.14), Advanta5017 (9.94) and Chakwal4 (7.8). The identified genotypes were also found as resistant and moderately resistant due to existence of below 50% of disease incidence. Moreover, biplot showed the interrelation of STI with YPP through the formation of acute angle by their respective vectors. In the current study, the markers Hpms1172 and CAMS177 was found significant for STI. However, the marker CAMS066 was found associated with relative cell injury, CA06g27450 with disease incidence and CAMS173 with relative leaf damage. The bright bands on gel pictures of significant markers showed the association of these markers with resistant genotypes i.e. Chakwal3, Advanta-5017 and Chakwal4 as well as with a single moderately resistant genotype i.e. Greenfire. The markerstudes confirmed the phenotypic data by showing association of markers i.e. Hpms1172 and CAMS177, r with stress tolerance index. The principal coordinate analysis aligned with the results obtained from marker-assisted selection. Thus, currently practiced marker assisted selection detected high yielding genotypes in PcRR disease stress condition that will be helpful in progressing breeding programs in chilli.

Context. Soil salinization represents a significant threat to agricultural productivity, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), a facultative halophyte with high nutritional value and tolerance to abiotic stresses, is a promising crop for saline agriculture. Aims. In this study, we evaluated the potential of halophilic and halotolerant plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB), previously isolated from hypersaline environments, to enhance quinoa performance under saline stress. Methods. A greenhouse experiment was conducted with quinoa plants (cv. Titicaca) subjected to two salinity levels (6.5 and 13 dS m-1) and eight bacterial treatments, including five single strains and two consortia. Physiological, morphological, and biochemical parameters were assessed over 87 days. Key results. Bacterial inoculation enhanced cumulative photosynthesis, pigment content, and soil biological activity, while reducing proline accumulation compared to non-inoculated controls under saline conditions. The strains Kushneria sp. T3.7 and Bacillus sp. HX11 significantly mitigated the impacts of salinity, maintaining physiological function and biomass accumulation like that of unstressed plants. Principal component analysis revealed different mechanisms of stress alleviation for specific strains depending on salinity level. Conclusions. Our findings support the potential of halophilic and halotolerant PGPB for the development of bioinputs for improving the growth and the physiological status of halophyte crops as quinoa under saline stress. Implications. These results offer an agricultural strategy for salt-affected soils using extreme-environments-adapted microbial inoculants.

Background: The Mediterranean Basin, a biodiversity hotspot, faces intensified abiotic stresses, such as drought and salinity, owing to climate change. These conditions pose significant challenges to the sustainable production of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs). These plants, especially those in the Lamiaceae family, are vital for traditional knowledge and high-value essential oil (EOs) production. Their production and composition are strongly influenced by environmental factors. Therefore, understanding how MAPs adapt to stress is essential for optimizing cultivation practices and ensuring a reliable supply. Methods: This study evaluated the comparative tolerance of six Lamiaceae species (Lavandula angustifolia, Mentha piperita, Origanum vulgare, Ocimum basilicum, Rosmarinus officinalis, and Salvia officinalis) to progressive drought and salinity stress. Experiments were conducted under controlled conditions, and species selection was guided by ethnobotanical criteria in the El Tarf region of northeastern Algeria, as previously described. Quantitative tolerance indices (Stress Tolerance Index, Tolerance, Yield Stability Index) and the Phenotypic Plasticity Index were used, along with multivariate analyses (PCA) to assess species performance. These tools helped identify critical stress thresholds based on the EO yield and biomass. Results: Origanum vulgare and Rosmarinus officinalis emerged as the most drought-tolerant species, maintaining 98–99% and 97–106% of the control EO yields, respectively, and showing minimal biomass reduction (less than 19%) under moderate drought (50% FC). Lavandula angustifolia exhibited superior salinity tolerance, maintaining 74% of control EO production and surviving as the only species at severe salinity (150 mM NaCl), whereas all other species showed 100% mortality. Conversely, Ocimum basilicum and Mentha piperita were highly sensitive to both stresses, with EO yields dropping to 0% under moderate drought (50% FC) and severe salinity (150 mM NaCl) conditions. Mild stress (75% FC drought, 50 mM NaCl salinity) sometimes induced hormetic responses, with EO accumulation increasing by up to 14.3% in Salvia officinalis. Distinct critical thresholds were identified, including 60–65% FC for drought and 75 mM NaCl for salinity, beyond which EO production sharply declined. Conclusions: This study ranked six Lamiaceae species according to their tolerance to drought and salinity. Origanum vulgare and Rosmarinus officinalis were identified as optimal candidates for cultivation in water-limited environments, whereas Lavandula angustifolia showed the highest potential under saline conditions. These findings provide essential benchmarks for precision agriculture and support strategic water management and cultivar selection to enhance the resilience and productivity of MAPs under climate change conditions. Keywords: Ethnobotany; Lamiaceae; Drought stress; Salinity stress; Essential oil; Tolerance indices; Phenotypic plasticity; Climate change

Soil salinity threatens global food security, making salt tolerance a key agronomic trait. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), a halophytic pseudo-cereal known for its high nutritional value, emerges as a promising candidate due to its inherent resilience to saline conditions. Although quinoa's physiological and morphological adaptations to salinity are documented, the role of native fungal endophytes in enhancing salinity tolerance remains largely unexplored, particularly across diverse genotypes. This study investigates the contributions of quinoa-associated endophytes to salinity tolerance and seed quality in different genotypes, thus contributing to understand ecological interactions bolstering crop resilience. To achieve this objective, five quinoa genotypes were selected based on their distribution along a 2,200 km latitudinal gradient (19°-39° S), representing a range of ecological niches. Plants with (E+) and without (E-) fungal endophytes were subjected to salinity treatments of 0, 200, and 400 mM NaCl. Salinity tolerance was assessed through photochemical efficiency, gene expression analysis of CqNHX1, and plant survival rates. Seed quality was evaluated by measuring seed weight and protein content, providing a comprehensive assessment of the endophytes' impact on quinoa under stress conditions. Our results reveal that native microbiomes significantly enhanced salinity tolerance and seed quality in a genotype-dependent manner. Notably, E+ plants demonstrated improved photochemical efficiency and higher expression levels of CqNHX1 under high salinity conditions, with survival rates increasing by up to 30% compared to E- plants. Seed weight and protein content were also positively affected, with E+ plants showing up to a 25% increase in protein content under 400 mM NaCl stress. Remarkably, E+ plants exhibited no negative effects under non-saline conditions. These findings suggest that fungal endophytes interactions shift from neutral to beneficial under salinity, with no trade-offs under normal conditions. This highlights the potential role of endophytes in enhancing quinoa resilience and nutritional value, reinforcing their importance for crop adaptation in the face of climate change. Future research should explore the molecular mechanisms underlying these beneficial interactions and assess their applicability to other crops, paving the way for innovative strategies in plant breeding and conservation.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is gaining global recognition for its nutritional benefits and adaptability to various environments. However, there is limited data on how different planting methods affect the productivity and quality of quinoa genotypes with varying panicle shapes, especially under irrigated conditions. We hypothesized that different crop establishment techniques influence the performance of quinoa genotypes in terms of phenology, weeds, growth, and yield aiming to enhance both yield and grain quality. To test this, a 2‐year field experiment (2021–2022 and 2022–2023) was conducted at Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Faisalabad, Pakistan. The experiment used split‐plot design with three replications incorporating three sowing methods in main plots: ridge sowing (RS), line sowing (LS), and broadcasting (BC) and three quinoa genotypes with different panicle architectures: UAF‐Q7 (intermediate), Line‐105 (glomerulate), and Line‐22 (amarantiform) in subplots. Results indicated that LS method improved morphological and yield attributes like stem thickness, terminal panicle length and weight, grain yield, 1000‐grain weight, and biological yield compared to RS and BC. Among genotypes, Line‐105 showed superior performance in morphology, biomass, and yield, while UAF‐Q7 had higher grain protein content. Panicle number per plant showed positive correlation with terminal panicle weight, grain yield, 1000‐grain weight, and harvest index. LS also resulted in highest crop growth rate and grain quality. The study suggests that LS is a better planting technique and Line‐105 is a suitable genotype for achieving high grain yield under irrigated conditions.

Although the effects of salicylic acid (SA) on increasing plant growth in saline conditions have been well known, the mechanisms of induction of salinity tolerance, especially in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), are not fully understood. In the present work, two quinoa genotypes (Titicaca and Giza1) were treated with different SA concentrations (0, 0.75, and 1.5 mM) under varied irrigation water salinities (0, 7, 14, and 21 dS m−1). Salinity decreased shoot and root growth, potassium (K+) concentration, and potassium to sodium ratio (K/Na) and increased sodium (Na+) and chlorine (Cl−) concentrations in both cultivars. Calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) concentrations increased in 7 dS m−1 but decreased in higher salinities. The growth and salinity tolerance of Giza1 were higher, while the growth of Giza1 increased and of Titicaca decreased in high salinity. Salicylic acid at 0.75-mM concentration increased shoot and root growth and improved the ions concentration in favor of the plant, while the 1.5-mM concentration either had no significant effect or had a negative impact. The ions distribution estimated by K/Na selectivity and storage factor (SF) indicated quinoa accumulated more ions in roots under saline conditions. Salicylic acid increased NaSF, ClSF, and MgSF and decreased KSF and CaSF, meaning less Na+, Cl−, and Mg2+ and more K+ and Ca2+ transferred to shoots in SA-treated plants. Importantly, Giza1, as the more tolerant cultivar, had higher NaSF and ClSF and lower KSF, CaSF, and MgSF. In general, the concentrations of ions in roots were higher than in shoots. The results indicated more ions accumulation in the root could be one of the most important mechanisms of salinity tolerance in quinoa, and the more tolerant cultivar (Giza1) transferred less Na+ and Cl− and more K+ and Ca2+ and Mg2+ to the shoot.

IntroductionIn the face of climate changes and limited water availability for irrigated crop production, enhanced drought tolerance and adaptation is vital to improve wheat productivity. The objective of this study was to determine the responses of newly bred and advanced mutant lines of wheat based on agronomic traits and biomass allocation under drought-stressed and non-stressed environments for production and breeding.MethodsFifty-three mutant lines, including the parental check and six check varieties, were evaluated under non-stressed (NS) and drought stressed (DS) conditions in the field and controlled environments using a 20 x 3 alpha lattice design with two replicates. The following agronomic data were collected: days to 50% heading (DTH), days to maturity (DTM), plant height (PH), number of productive tillers (PTN), shoot biomass (SB), root biomass (RB), total biomass (TB), root: shoot ratio (RSR), spike length (SL), thousand seeds weight (TSW) and grain yield (GY). Data were analyzed and summarized using various statistical procedures and drought tolerance indices were computed based on grain yield under NS and DS conditions.ResultsSignificant (P < 0.05) differences were recorded among the mutant lines for most assessed traits under NS and DS conditions. Grain yield positively and significantly (p < 0.001) correlated with PTN (r = 0.85), RB (r = 0.75), SB (r = 0.80), SL (r =0.73), TB (r = 0.65), and TSW (r = 0.67) under DS condition. Principal component analysis revealed three components contributing to 78.55% and 77.21% of the total variability for the assessed agronomic traits under DS and NS conditions, respectively. The following traits: GY, RB, SB, and PTN explained most of the variation with high loading scores under DS condition. Geometric mean productivity (GMP), mean productivity (MP), harmonic mean (HM), and stress tolerance index (STI) were identified as the best drought tolerance indices for the identification of tolerant lines with positive correlations with GY under NS and DS conditions.DiscussionAmong the advanced lines tested, LMA16, LMA37, LMA47, LMA2, and LMA42 were selected as the superior lines with high performance and drought tolerance. The selected lines are recommended for multi-environment trails and release for production in water-limited environments in South Africa.

Introduction Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a facultative halophyte with very high adaptability to varied climatic conditions and high nutritional value. Different quinoa cultivars can have economical and stable yield in saline soil and water conditions. In addition to salinity, the chemical composition of irrigation water and thus soil solution affect the uptake and transfer of water and nutrients, and so plant yield. The intensity of this effect depends on various factors such as plant species. Calcium to magnesium ratio (Ca/Mg) is one of the quality indicators of irrigation water that can affect soil physical conditions and nutrient uptake independent of salinity level. A Ca/Mg < 1 and exchangeable magnesium percentage more than 25% in irrigation water are considered high enough to reduce soil quality and crop yields. Currently, frequent droughts and high water extraction have caused a sharp drop in water levels, increase in salinity, and in some cases a decrease in the Ca/Mg in the groundwater of most arid regions of the country. Since the effect of Ca/Mg in irrigation water on growth and yield of quinoa has not been studied so far, so the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of different Ca/Mg in irrigation water on growth parameters and quinoa grain yield in saline conditions. Materials and methods To study the effect of different Ca/Mg of irrigation water on quinoa growth and yield, three separate experiments in a randomized complete block design with four replications were conducted at the Research Greenhouse of Soil and Water Research Institute in 2018. Experimental treatments included three different Ca/Mg in irrigation water consisting of 0.25, 0.5 and 1, which were made by sodium chloride, magnesium and calcium as nutrient solutions fit to the salinity tolerance threshold of quinoa at different growth stages. In the previous research, yield reduction thresholds for Titicaca cultivar at different growth stages in a soilless culture (perlite) were a: 8 dS m-1 for emergence, b: 15 dS m-1 for flowering and c: 20 dS m-1 for grain filling. To conduct this research, 100 quinoa seeds were planted in pots, and the pots were irrigated with 8 dS m-1 water along with the desired Ca/Mg treatments. After establishing the quinoa seedlings and thinning to six plants per pot, pot irrigation was done with 15 dS m-1 salinity along with the desired treatments. After ensuring the end of the flowering stage, the remaining pots were irrigated with 20 dS m-1 salinity with the desired treatments until physiological ripening. Finally, the analysis of variance of the data was performed using SAS software and the means were compared with the protected LSD at 5% probability level. Results and discussion The results showed that the emergence percentage and non-uniformity of quinoa were not affected by Ca/Mg of irrigation water, however, increasing the magnesium amount significantly improved the emergence rate of quinoa seeds. Although the results showed that the fresh and dry weight at the flowering stage was significantly affected by Ca/Mg of irrigation water, the yield and yield components were not significantly affected. Therefore, the quinoa growth and yield are not affected by the ionic composition of irrigation water in terms of low Ca/Mg, however, the composition of absorbed and accumulated ions in plant tissues are significantly changed. So, compared to other conventional crops, quinoa has the potential to produce economic yield in saline conditions and is not affected by the Ca/Mg of water sources. Conclusion The results of this study showed that different Ca/Mg in irrigation water do not reduce the growth and yield of quinoa. Therefore, if the salinity tolerance threshold of the plant is considered, low water quality in terms of high magnesium concentration does not damage the plant and so can be cultivated with saline water sources such as diluted seawater.