Effects of processing parameters and citric acid pre-treatment on acrylamide formation in deep-fried yellow split pea (Pisum sativum) vade

Processing strategies to decrease acrylamide formation, reducing sugars and free asparagine content in potato chips from three commercial cultivars

Roasting is an essential step in making roasted teas, and its role in producing flavors has been widely studied. However, the variation of potential hazardous compounds during the tea roasting process is still vague. The present study established an effective method based on liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole-tandem mass spectrometry to simultaneously determine the variation of acrylamide (AA), 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF), and free amino acids during the tea roasting process. Meanwhile, the effects of several tea polyphenols on the formation of AA and 5-HMF were investigated by a wet-to-dry thermal model reaction. Medium-temperature roasted teas had the highest levels of AA and 5-HMF, with ranges of 0.13-0.15 μg g-1 and 68.72-123.98 μg g-1, respectively. Quantitative results showed that the levels of monosaccharides and amino acids decreased during roasting, which might contribute to the formation of 5-HMF and AA. Meanwhile, the decrease of epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), epigallocatechin (EGC), and epicatechin (EC) might be related to their inhibitory effects on 5-HMF and AA. Thermal model reaction results showed that EGCG and EC significantly inhibited 5-HMF formation with a decline rate of 33.33% and 72.22%, respectively, mainly by trapping glucose. Gallic acid (GA) also had an inhibitory effect on the formation of AA (decreased by 92.86%) and 5-HMF (44.44%), mainly through impeding the preliminary reaction of asparagine and glucose. The roasting temperature determined the levels of AA and 5-HMF in teas. Catechins inhibited the formation of 5-HMF and AA mostly through trapping monosaccharides, while the inhibitory effect of GA was achieved by impeding the reaction. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Reduction of acrylamide formation in potato chips was investigated in relation to ten pretreatments before frying. Potato slices were fried at 170 C for 5 min. Prior to frying, potato slices were soaked in one of the following solutions for 60min : (1) tap water ; (2-4) NaCl solutions (1%, 2% and 3%); (5-7) citric acid solutions (0.5 %, 1 % and 2%); (8) combined solution (NaCl 3% +0.5% citric acid); (9)tomato juice and (10) combined tomato juice(tomato juice + 1% NaCl + 0.5% citric acid). Reducing sugars and asparagine contents were determined in potato slices before frying, whereas acrylamide content was determined in the resultant fried potato chips. All studied treatments decreased both of reducing sugars and asparagene content (except tap water with asparagene), and consequently acrylamide formation. The highest reduction effects were recorded for combined tomato juice, tomato juice and combined solution of 3% NaCl+ 0.5 % citric acid, respectively. Oil uptake of fried potato only affected by NaCl treatments either separated or combined and tomato juice. In relation to sensory parameters, all studied treatments improved the sensory characteristics, with 2 exceptions: the first is the undesirable effect of citric acid treatments on taste and the second is the undesirable effect of 2% NaCl on crispiness. The highest value of over all acceptability was recorded for combined tomato juice followed by tomato juice. Keywords: Potato slices; Frying; Acrylamide; Reducing sugars; Asparagine ;oil uptake, sensory characteristics

SummaryAmino acids have attracted increasing attention in developing effective inhibitors on acrylamide (AA) formation during food processing. The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the inhibitory effect and mechanism of taurine (Tau) on AA formation. In the presence of Tau, AA formation was effectively inhibited in asparagine/glucose (Asn/Glc) model system. Results also showed that Glc content was decreased as Glc–Tau solution was heated, which indicated that Tau could react directly with Glc in the Maillard reaction. LC‐QTOF MS revealed two peaks in extracted ion chromatograms [M + H] + at m/z 197 and m/z 268 during the thermal treatment, which were identified as AA–Tau and AA dimmer–Tau adducts, respectively. Our results demonstrated that inhibitory effect of Tau on AA formation was not only mediated through contesting consumption of Glc with Asn, but also directly reacting with AA to promote formation of AA–Tau and AA dimer–Tau adducts.

SummaryIn the current study, rosmarinic acid (RosA) played a critical role in inhibiting acrylamide (AA) formation in Maillard system and potato chips. Compared to the control group, AA formation was markedly inhibited by RosA of 10−4 and 10−1 mm in asparagine (Asn)‐glucose (Glc) system, and 10−5−1.0 mm in Asn‐fructose (Fru) system. The kinetic study indicated that with heating time ranging from 30 to 60 min, RosA had a significant inhibition effect on AA formation. Mechanism study showed the addition reaction between RosA and AA was the primary pathway to inhibit AA formation. In potato crisps, response surface methodology showed that frying temperature of 140.11 °C, frying time of 6.02 min and RosA concentration of 0.012 μm had the lowest AA formation. In conclusion, RosA inhibited AA formation in both the model systems and potato crisps, and its application in food industry is well expected.

This study examined the effects of cookie ingredients and cookie formulation without adding leavening agents, sodium bicarbonate and ammonium bicarbonate, sucrose, glucose, fructose and adding chitosan on the pH, water activity, browning index, reducing sugar of cookies and the formation of acrylamide. High browning index value (218) of control cookies was found, as compared to a combination of ingredients, model cookies (33), cake flour and water during 15 min baking. Higher browning index value (83) of model cookies with the addition of shortening did not show a high acrylamide concentration. The highest mitigation (55.2%) of acrylamide formation was obtained by removing ammonium bicarbonate in control cookie formulation. The formation of acrylamide showed a positive correlation with the cookie baking time. The baking time significantly influences the physicochemical properties of cookies. Ammonium bicarbonate was the most effective ingredient in terms of causing the formation of acrylamide in cookie formulation. The addition of chitosan was also able to mitigate the formation of acrylamide during baking.

The formation of acrylamide (AA) in cooked foods has raised human health concerns. AA is metabolized by cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) to glycidamide (GA), which forms DNA adducts. This study examined the inhibitory effects of wasabi (Japanese horseradish, Wasabia japonica) roots and leaves as well as their active component, allyl isothiocyanate (AIT), on the formation and genotoxicity of AA. AA formation (51.8 ± 4.2 µg kg-1 ) was inhibited with ≥2 mg mL-1 of AIT. Wasabi roots also inhibited AA formation (∼90% reduction), but wasabi leaves were not effective at 2 mg mL-1 . Wasabi roots and leaves decreased the number of cells with micronuclei by approximately 33 and 24% respectively compared with the AA treatment group. Moreover, wasabi roots and leaves (100 mg kg-1 body weight (BW) day-1 for each) decreased AA (100 mg kg-1 BW day-1 )-induced DNA damage. The AA-induced CYP2E1 activity was decreased by 39 and 26% with wasabi roots and leaves respectively. Further, the activity of glutathione S-transferase, which catalyzes the detoxification of AA via glutathione conjugation, increased by 54 and 33% with wasabi roots and leaves respectively. These results indicate that wasabi roots and leaves are effective ingredients for inhibiting the formation and genotoxicity of AA. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effect of green tea extract and microwave pre-cooking on the formation of acrylamide in fried chicken drumsticks and chicken wings

Many of our food products have undergone a heat-treatment before consumption, either at home or at the food industry. Heat treatments not only bring out desired characteristics of the food products such as flavour, texture, taste and safety aspects but also leads to the formation of undesired compounds that may have negative impacts for human health. Such undesired compounds that are generated from the Maillard reaction are neo-formed food contaminants (NFC). NFC are present in many common heat-processed foods, such as potatoes-based products, cereal-based products, baby foods, and dairy products. Therefore, effective mitigation measures are being developed to minimize the generation of such undesired compounds while maintaining the organoleptic attributes of the food products as consumer’s demands. This thesis aimed at understanding the mechanistic pathways for the formation of three neo-formed food contaminants: acrylamide, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), and NƐ-(carboxymethyl)lysine (CML), using multireponse kinetic modelling. First, the topic of the Maillard reaction, occurrence and human exposure to the three NFC in heated foods, and multiresponse kinetic modelling is introduced. Then, scientific literature on analytical methods, formation pathways, occurrence in processed foods, and health impacts of CML was reviewed. Based on the literature, an experiment was set up to understand the formation pathway for CML in caseinate-lactose/glucose solutions, each heated at 120oC and 130oC. According to the best fitting mechanistic model, the formation of CML in the two model solutions originated from the reaction between lactose/glucose and lysine residues via the Amadori rearrangement product formation. Moreover, glucose and lactose were degraded via Lobry de Bruyn-Alberda van Ekenstein (LA) arrangement. CML seems to be not thermally stable, and may thus not be an optimal indicator for heat damage of foods. Another experiment was done for gaining insights into the formation of acrylamide and HMF in biscuits during baking at 200oC. Four biscuit recipes were prepared with three sugar types: (1) sucrose (35 g), (2) glucose (17.5 g) and fructose (17.5 g), (3) fructose (17.5 g), and (4) glucose. The molar ratio of total glucose and fructose to asparagine in each type of biscuit was higher than 1. The concentrations of acrylamide and HMF were lowest in the sucrose-prepared biscuits. Kinetic modelling results suggested that during baking of these four kinds of biscuits, acrylamide was formed via the specific amino acid route, i.e., a reducing sugar reacts with asparagine to form the Schiff base without the Amadori product formation (not via Strecker degradation), and that HMF was formed via caramelisation. Fructose played a key role in the formation of both acrylamide and HMF. In a similar experiment, the effects of different types of wheat flour on acrylamide and HMF formation in sucrose-prepared biscuits during baking at 200oC were investigated. Four types of wheat flour, which had the most different concentrations of asparagine, and total glucose and fructose (the reducing sugar), were selected for the preparation of four kinds of biscuits. Out of four wheat flour types, two had the molar ratio of reducing sugars to asparagine lower than 1, and the other two had a ratio higher than 1. Results showed that those different molar ratios in wheat flour did not have effects on the pathways leading to the formation of acrylamide and HMF in all four types of biscuits. Acrylamide was formed via the specific amino acid route, and HMF was formed via caramelisation. No clear correlation was found between the concentration of either acrylamide or HMF in biscuits and the concentration of asparagine or the reducing sugars in wheat flour. Asparagine was not a limiting factor for acrylamide generation in biscuits. The outcomes of this thesis give insights into the actual reaction pathways for the formation of acrylamide and HMF in biscuits during baking at 200oC and for the formation of CML in the model solutions. These modelling results may help to control the formation of these NFCs in a quantitative way.

Impact of selected additives on acrylamide formation in asparagine/sugar Maillard model systems

The effect of pyridoxamine (PM) on the reduction of acrylamide (AA) formation in a low-moisture equimolar glucose/asparagine model system was investigated. Formation/elimination kinetics of acrylamide was carried out at temperatures between 120 and 180 degrees C. Time courses of glucose, asparagine, pyridoxamine, 3-aminopropionamide (3-APA), acrylamide, and browning were measured to get more insight on the mechanism of action of PM. PM exhibited an inhibitory effect on AA formation at all temperatures studied, but became more relevant at 160 and 180 degrees C (up to 51% reduction). Degradation rates of glucose and asparagine were not significantly affected by PM, but PM was rapidly consumed in the glucose/asparagine system. Browning was significantly suppressed by addition of PM in the system, and formation of 3-APA was increased as compared to control. In comparison with pyridoxal, pyridoxine, and ascorbic acid, PM exerted the highest inhibition activity against AA formation, and a clear dose-response was observed. The nucleophilic aminomethyl group of PM was crucial for the exertion of an inhibition effect more than double those other B6 vitamers. The action mechanism of PM was attributable to its structural features that have the capacity to scavenge intermediary dicarbonyls formed during sugar degradation and advanced stages of the Maillard reaction. These findings open new possibilities for strategies in acrylamide mitigation where formation of reactive dicarbonyls should be carefully considered.

Effect of innovative pre-treatments on the mitigation of acrylamide formation in potato chips

Background and Objective: Acrylamide as a toxic substance for human beings is produced by Maillard reaction at high temperatures. In this research, this reaction can be inhibited based on using aspariganse enzyme, controlling the cooking time and temperature during baking in yeast-leavened bread. Material and Methods: In this study, a response surface methodology 5-level-3-factor central composite design was applied to study the effects of asparaginase (300-900 U Kg-1 of flour), baking temperature (230-280°C) and baking time (13-16 min) on acrylamide formation in yeast-leavened wheat bread. Results and Conclusion: Added asparaginase showed a reducing effect on acrylamide formation (p≤0.0001). Baking temperature significantly increased the acrylamide content in bread (p≤0.0001). A strong correlation was found between the baking temperature and acrylamide formation. Baking time and its interaction with asparaginase had a low but significant reducing effect on acrylamide content in bread (p≤0.0001). Three parameters of the cooking temperature and time as well as enzyme concentration have been optimized using response surface methodology, their values obtained 245.71°C, 14.55 min and 752.15 U Kg-1, respectively. Enzymatic process could be suggested as a safe and convenient method for preventing acrylamide formation in bread making. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Effect of acidity regulators on acrylamide and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural formation in French fries: The dual role of pH and acid radical ion

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of oil type and oxidation status on acrylamide (AA) formation and colour development in potato products under domestic baking conditions. Sunflower, soybean and olive oil were used; the first one was thermally oxidized to obtain different oxidation status. A potato dough containing 10 % oil, potato powder, flour and water was shaped into thin discs and baked at 180 °C for different heating times. AA concentration, moisture content and surface colour were determined. Results obtained showed that neither the nature of lipids present, in terms of content of unsaturated fatty acids, nor the degree of fat oxidation influenced AA formation in low-fat baked potato products. Browning ratio higher than 45 % and moisture content lower than 17 % resulted in dark brown, almost burnt, products. Moreover, in those cases, no correlation could be found between those variables and AA content, since formation and degradation simultaneously occur. When the browning ratio ranged between 0 and 45 %, a good linear correlation with AA formation was observed, suggesting that the browning ratio may be considered as a reliable indicator of AA concentration. Finally, AA less than 1000 μg/kg, which is an indicative value that has been recently set for potato crisps by the European Commission, corresponds to a browning ratio of less than 8 % and moisture content more than 23.5 %.