Effects of a school-based leadership program on student leaders and their peers: The Learning to Lead cluster randomized controlled trial

The millennium age of educational leadership opens a new perspective towards student leadership (Black et al., 2014). The idea of student leadership in the 21st century has risen (Adams & Velarde, 2018), the call for student leadership gaining in momentum, as various enhanced leadership models and trends are developed for students (Tan & Adams 2018; Tie, 2012). Scholars argue that students’ leadership development should be a priority to assist students to form a strong leadership identity at an early stage (Adams, Kamarudin, & Tan, 2018; Amirianzadeh, 2012; Keselman et al., 2015; Simonsen et al., 2014; Villarreal et al., 2018). There are still lingering doubts over the leadership competencies of student leaders. As leaders of tomorrow; it is imperative they grasp an understanding of the many leadership styles, know the leadership models and exposed to leadership development programs that enables them to increase their knowledge, competence, skills and capabilities as leaders. Student leadership development is now the responsibility of all members of the learning community (Dugan & Komives, 2007) and schools have a responsibility to prepare students to lead (Adams, Kamarudin, & Tan, 2018). However, there is little research regarding student leadership and leadership development models (Wisner, 2011). Astin’s (1977) decades of research on student leadership may have sparked initial discussions. Astin’s introduction of the Student Involvement Theory and subsequently developing three important models of student leadership; namely the College Impact Model, the Social Change Model, and the Transformative Leadership Model serves as a guide for other research on understanding student qualities and characteristics and the nature of the educational environment students experience (Astin, 1991), students’ leadership development (Astin et al., 1996), and to transform a campus to a leadership environment (Astin & Astin, 2000). Subsequently, the Student Leadership Challenge Model was developed by Kouzes and Posner (2003) highlighting common practices of exemplary student leadership and how they influence others “a desire to make something happen, to change the way things are, to create something that no one has ever created before” (p. 15). Amirianzadeh, Jaafari, Ghourchian and Jowkar (2010) combined both Astin’s et al (1996) and Kouzes and Posner (2003) work to develop the Student Leadership Competencies Model. The model looks at the effects of students’ involvement, environment, attitudes and behaviour as important variables in student leadership competencies development. A more contemporary theory of student leadership emerged in Amirianzadeh’s (2012) Hexagon Theory of Student Leadership. This theory was built upon empirical student leadership research over the past two decades. The theory advocates that student leadership develops from education, training and development through the individual himself and their social environment, thus this model enables the students to function within these dimensions as a leader. Interestingly, Bolman and Deal’s (1997) Four-Frame Model, one of the best-known theories of leadership and management (Bush, 2011) remains relatively unexplored in the area of student leadership (Tan & Adams, 2018). A notable observation is that most student leadership literature comes from the researchers’ perspective rather the student’s perspective (Dempster & Lizzio, 2007). While it’s important to understand the various models of student leadership as the development of leadership training and development programmes will enhance` students’ leadership effectiveness (Adams, 2018; Wisner, 2011), the true voices of the students are outweighed by the voices of researchers (Aminitehrani, 2017). This has become all the more apparent especially among students with disability where research on student leadership among students with disability is yet to be uncovered worldwide (Chapman, Ainscow, Miles, & West, 2011). While researchers come up with various models of student leadership and educators wax eloquently about the importance of developing student leaders, these remain theories until they are applied practically in leadership development programmes for students. There is a need for more research on student leadership, factors that inhibit its effectiveness and the challenges encountered, in order to develop leadership programs for students to have the added competencies that the 21st century demands.

BackgroundEarly aggressive behaviour is a risk factor for later violence and criminal behaviour. Despite over 20 years of violence prevention interventions being delivered in the school setting, questions remain regarding the effectiveness of different interventions for children exhibiting aggressive behaviour.ObjectivesTo examine the effect of school based violence prevention programmes for children identified as aggressive or at risk of being aggressive.Search strategyWe searched CENTRAL, Cochrane Injuries Group specialised register, MEDLINE, EMBASE, other specialised databases and reference lists of articles. We also contacted authors and organisations to identify any further studies.Selection criteriaWe included trials meeting the following criteria; 1) participants were randomly assigned to intervention and control groups; 2) outcome data were collected concurrently; 3) participants comprised children in mandatory education identified as exhibiting, or at risk of, aggressive behaviour; 4) interventions designed to reduce aggression, violence, bullying, conflict or anger; 5) school based interventions; 6) outcomes included aggressive behaviour, school and agency responses to acts of aggression, or violent injuries.Data collection and analysisData were collected on design, participants, interventions, outcomes and indicators of study quality. Results of any intervention to no intervention were compared immediately post‐intervention and at 12 months using meta‐analysis where appropriate.Main resultsOf 56 trials identified, none reported data on violent injuries. Aggressive behaviour was significantly reduced in intervention groups compared to no intervention groups immediately post intervention in 34 trials with data, (Standardised Mean Difference (SMD) =‐0.41; 95% confidence interval (CI) ‐0.56 to ‐0.26). This effect was maintained in the seven studies reporting 12 month follow‐up (SMD =‐0.40, (95% CI ‐0.73 to ‐0.06)). School or agency disciplinary actions in response to aggressive behaviour were reduced in intervention groups for nine trials with data, SMD =‐0.48; 95% CI ‐1.16 to 0.19, although this difference may have been due to chance and was not maintained, based on two studies reporting follow‐up to two to four months (SMD =0.03; 95% CI ‐0.42 to 0.47). Subgroup analyses suggested that interventions designed to improve relationship or social skills may be more effective than interventions designed to teach skills of non‐response to provocative situations, but that benefits were similar when delivered to children in primary versus secondary school, and to groups of mixed sex versus boys alone.Authors' conclusionsSchool‐based secondary prevention programmes to reduce aggressive behaviour appear to produce improvements in behaviour greater than would have been expected by chance. Benefits can be achieved in both primary and secondary school age groups and in both mixed sex groups and boys‐only groups. Further research is required to establish whether such programmes reduce the incidence of violent injuries or if the benefits identified can be maintained beyond 12 months.Plain language summaryAre school‐based programmes aimed at children who are considered at risk of aggressive behaviour, effective in reducing violence?Violence is recognised as a major global public health problem, thus there has been much attention placed on interventions aimed at preventing aggressive and violent behaviour. As aggressive behaviour in childhood is considered to be a risk factor for violence and criminal behaviour in adulthood, violence prevention strategies targeted at children and adolescents, such as school‐based programmes, are considered to be promising interventions.Some school‐based prevention programmes target all children attending a school or class, whilst others confine the intervention to those children who have already been identified as exhibiting, or threatening, behaviour considered to be aggressive, such an approach is known as 'secondary prevention'. A wide variety of school‐based violence prevention programmes have been implemented over the last 20 years, yet we are still without a full understanding of their effectiveness.The objective of this systematic review was to determine the effectiveness of school‐based secondary prevention programmes to prevent violence (that is those interventions targeted at children identified as aggressive or at risk of being aggressive) .The authors examined all trials investigating the effectiveness of secondary violence prevention programmes targeted at children in mandatory education compared to no intervention or a placebo intervention.The authors found 56 studies; the overall findings show that school‐based secondary prevention programmes aimed at reducing aggressive behaviour do appear to produce improvements in behaviour. The improvements can be achieved in both primary and secondary school age groups and in both mixed sex groups and boy‐only groups.Further research is needed to investigate if the apparent beneficial programmes effects can be realised outside the experimental setting and in settings other than schools. None of the studies collected data on violent injury, so we can not be certain of the extent to which an improvement in behaviour translates to an actual injury reduction. In addition, more research is needed to determine if the beneficial effects can be maintained over time, and if the benefits can be justified against the costs of implementing such programmes.

Addressing Common Risk and Protective Factors Can Prevent a Wide Range of Adolescent Risk Behaviors

Student leadership has been recognized as an essential part of higher education for an extended period, as it fosters personal growth, civic engagement, and social responsibility. Student leaders develop critical competencies, such as conflict resolution, communication, and decision-making, through their participation in campus initiatives, governance councils, and student organizations (Dugan & Komives, 2010). It embodies character and responsibilities that are fundamentally connected to their core values and identity. These competencies provide both benefits and challenges to student leaders. The researchers explored the self-care practices of student leaders and their influence on mental wellness. Student leaders often juggle academic, organizational, and personal responsibilities, making self-care critical to their mental health and leadership effectiveness. The researchers aim to investigate the experiences, assess the self-care practices, and understand the difficulties faced in maintaining mental well-being as a student and a leader. A descriptive quantitative research approach was used in gathering straightforward reports from (n=18) student leaders. Interviews were transcribed and analyzed using thematic analysis. The findings of the study reveal that student leaders engage in self-care practices through socialization, spiritual, and meaningful activities as a means of relaxation and fulfillment. The data showed that the student leaders were challenged by the pressure and sacrifices needed to sustain studies and leadership roles, which led to anxiety, self-doubt, frustration, and emotional disturbances. However, the student leaders did not let these challenges affect them; instead, they transformed these difficulties into motivation to improve their ability to handle their responsibilities. Henceforth, the researchers recommend that HEIs in the Philippines must actively assist student leaders by incorporating mental wellness education into leadership programs, conducting regular check-ups, ensuring that they have access to counseling services, and cultivating a culture that prioritizes the self-care of student leaders.

Objectives This study aimed to compare students’ knowledge and practices related to managing school meals before and after a participatory learning program. Methods The study used a one group pretest–posttest quasi-experimental design with assessment conducted before and after a participatory learning program. The study included 34 student leaders who participated in the program during February to March 2020. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-test, and the Wilcoxon Matched Pairs Signed-Ranks test. Results The 34 student leaders (64.7% female and 35.3% male, average age 16.91 years) scored 15.26 before the knowledge segment of the program and 19.35 after that program. They received an average score of 9.0 before the practices segment of the program which improved to 20.00 after the program. The increase in both knowledge and practice scores were statistically significant (p < 0.001, p < 0.001). Conclusion Food management in schools is essential to the nutritional status of students. A participatory learning program can significantly improve student leaders’ knowledge and practices related to school food management. Student leaders can conduct these programs and exchange ideas with other students. School food management policies can then be adjusted accordingly. Chiang Mai Medical Journal 2021;60(1):113-24. doi 10.12982/CMUMEDJ.2021.10

This paper focuses on student leaders’ participation in school peer counseling programs as a valuable strategy of student leaders’ integration in school governance. Intensive involvement of student leaders in school peer counseling programs is a worthwhile link between the students’ body, teachers and the school administration. It is an opportunity for the student leaders to interact and share with the students’ body as they air their views and concerns on academic and discipline issues in the school. Utilization of the information gathered from peer counseling forums by the school administrators in decision making translates to impressive learners’ discipline and academic performance. The study was carried out in Machakos sub-county, Machakos County, Kenya to investigate the impact of student leaders’ participation in school peer counseling programs on learners’ discipline in public and private secondary schools. The study was guided by two objectives; to establish the status of student leaders’ participation in school peer counseling programs and establish the impact on learners’ discipline. The study embraced a descriptive survey design. Simple random sampling and purposive sampling were employed to get the Sample size. Data were collected using questionnaires for the students and teachers and interview schedules for the deputy principals, principals, Board of Management (BoM) chairpersons, and directors of private schools. Further, relevant documents were scrutinized for triangulation of the information provided by the respondents. The data collected was processed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 21. The statistics were tabulated and subjected to regression analysis using ANOVA and coefficient models.The study established student leaders’ participation in school peer counseling programs as a golden chance for student leaders to interact with fellow learners’ as they express views and suggestions on school routines, rules, and regulations. Action on gathered information created a peaceful school environment suitable for mentoring learners .The result was improved learners' discipline. In contrast, student leaders who did not actively and openly interact with other learners missed an opportunity to gather information on learners' views and hence did not identify real issues affecting learners for the school administration action. The study concluded that participation of student leaders in school peer counseling was significantly higher at (p) 0.003 than student leaders not participating in school peer counseling programs (p) 0.047. Hence the null hypothesis was rejected. The study recommended that school principals and other school administrators should organize frequent school peer counseling programs and encourage student leaders and other learners to air their views.

Deepening leadership identity development.

The current research investigated the emotional intelligence and creative abilities of student leaders to determine if these skills had an impact on their leadership roles and if a relationship existed between the students' emotional intelligence, creativity, and leadership practices. A descriptive study was conducted using both qualitative and quantitative methods. Eighteen high school students from the Champions of Caring program participated in the study. The results of this research will contribute to the educational literature of student leadership and support the development of student leadership models specifically designed to assist students in enhancing their leadership skills. Four significant relationships were found in this study. The first significant finding was that there is a relationship between leadership (Student LPI) and emotional intelligence (EISA) (r = .62, .05 level of significance). When assessing the student essays for emotional intelligence, creativity, and leadership, three significant findings existed. There was a strong relationship found between emotional intelligence and student leadership (r = .66, .01 level of significance), emotional intelligence and creativity (r = .82, .01 level of significance) and creativity and leadership (.55, .05 level of significance). These findings have important implications for the future development of student leadership programs.

Drawing on the experiences and perspectives of multiple stakeholders closely associated with diverse types of successful student leadership programs, the purpose of this study was to identify the attributes of leadership programs—including the specific actions associated with these attributes—that contribute significantly to undergraduate student leadership development. A total of 62 interviews was conducted with individuals across the four programs in the sample. The researcher employed the constant comparative method to construct a grounded theory model. The theory of high-quality leadership programs developed in this study is grounded in those programmatic attributes that, when enacted, contribute significantly to enhancing student learning and leadership development. The data analysis revealed 16 attributes of high-quality leadership programs organized into three clusters: (a) participants engaged in building and sustaining a learning community; (b) student-centered experiential learning experiences; and (c) research-grounded continuous program development.

<p id="C2">School bullying has become a public health issue in the past several decades which caused physical and psychological harm on bullies, victims as well as bystanders. Therefore, a series of anti-bullying programs were designed to reduce the bullying or the harmfulness of bullying, but the effectiveness of these programs was inconsistent. Forty-three pre-post randomized controlled trail studies were selected to examine the effect of school-based anti-bullying programs. The evidence quality was screened under the GRADE protocol. Results suggested a significant effect for anti-bullying programs which targets bullies (<italic>g</italic> = 0.57, <italic>p</italic>&lt; 0.05), while those who target victims, victimization decreased (g = 0.40, <italic>p</italic>&lt; 0.05), and overall metal health improved (<italic>g</italic> = 0.40, <italic>p</italic>&lt; 0.01). The pooled effect size indicated that school-based anti-bullying programs have a small effect on bullying and victimization (<italic>g</italic> = 0.17, <italic>p</italic>&lt; 0.001) and influenced by publication bias. Attitude changed moderately (<italic>g</italic> = 0.19, <italic>p</italic>&lt; 0.001). The evidence of attitude change was moderate, other outcome variables have a very low or low evidence quality according to GRADE protocol. For the programs targeting universal students, programs which was less than one semester performed better, and the global intervention showed more effective than education. The effect size of anti-bullying programs targeting bullies or victims was moderate, but more research is needed. Though school-based anti-bullying programs which target universal students have a relatively small effect size, however, they are practical for real-world applications. The dose of intervention and the feature of programs have influence on the effect of anti-bullying programs.

In higher education, as well as K–12 education, assessment has become a necessity to ensure quality, determine student learning, and share information with stakeholders. Similarly, institutions are focused on leadership development to prepare students to meet the challenges of a complex, global environment. Because leadership draws on multiple disciplines, it is not taught in the same way that chemistry or accounting are. Although some expect that leadership is learned by happenstance or a series of unrelated expectations, educators know leadership development takes a coordinated effort that includes individual and program assessment to improve programs and practices. In this issue, educators from a range of institutions, experiences, and backgrounds share their diverse theoretical backgrounds and experiences to illustrate tangible practices of assessing student leadership in both the college and high school settings. Student learning and program assessment are educational priorities in today's complex, resource-limited environment. Yet, not all leadership educators are assessment experts; conversely, not all assessment specialists have a strong foundation in leadership theories and models. Fortunately, faculty and staff can collaborate not only to create exceptional leadership programs, but they can also provide strong evidence of student growth and program quality. To ensure that happens, educators need to understand the systematic process of assessment, developing a structured plan that includes multiple assessment methods over time and experiences. Without a cohesive plan, staff will not have a roadmap to follow. Because leadership and assessment do not happen in a vacuum, leadership educators need to collaborate with other faculty, staff, and stakeholders. As a part of developing a strong, well-assessed leadership program, all stakeholders need to have consistent language. This is a prime opportunity for faculty and staff to partner. In addition, educators need to decide what will be assessed. Some leadership programs focus on individual student competencies and skill development. Others focus on how students compare in terms of development related to a model or theory. Some assessment models encourage student self-assessment, whereas others rely on educators to evaluate student performance. In recent years, more national instruments have been created to provide an aggregate view of development, as well as a way to benchmark against other institutions or through time. Although quantitative methods are fairly common in leadership assessment, as evidenced by national surveys, qualitative methods provide rich and deep data about the student leadership experiences. Students who are able to reflect, both during and after experiences, can integrate and synthesize learning. Leadership educators have the responsibility to make the experiences and their meaning explicit, because students do not always do that on their own. Institutions, departments, programs, educators, and students have a stake in student leadership development. Ideally, when those areas and people are aligned, students have the best learning environment. Assessment is valued and used to describe student success and improve the programs. This issue provides important information for educators who work closely with students and programs in developing their leadership capacity. In today's educational environment, educators and administrators focus on retention, learning, and preparation for the work world, while paying close attention to fiscal stewardship, accountability, and added value. Student leadership assessment needs to be a priority in education to move the profession forward, provide exceptional developmental programs, and prepare students for a successful future. Darby M. Roberts is the director of Student Life Studies at Texas A&M University and also teaches in the Student Affairs Administration and Higher Education master's program. She focuses on assessment of cocurricular student learning and experiences, program review, and the scholarship of student affairs assessment. She is the coeditor of Learning Is Not a Sprint and coauthor of Student Affairs Assessment: Theory to Practice. From 2013–2015, Darby was cochair of NASPA's Assessment, Evaluation, and Research Knowledge Community. She frequently presents and writes on various student affairs assessment topics. Krista J. Bailey is an associate director in the Offices of the Dean of Student Life at Texas A&M University and also teaches in the Student Affairs Administration and Higher Education master's program. She has worked with many different functional areas within student affairs, including student leadership programs. Krista frequently presents on a variety of topics including student learning.

Asthma is a common, chronic, non-communicable respiratory disease that affects millions of children worldwide. Asthma exacerbations can range from mild to severe and can have an unfavorable impact on the quality of life of children and their caregivers. Asthma exacerbations often result in absenteeism from school or work, activity intolerance and emergency hospital visits. One strategy to address this health issue in an attempt to improve health outcomes is school-based asthma educational programs. A review of the literature revealed that previous systematic reviews have examined similar topics on the effectiveness of school-based asthma educational programs that have included collaborative efforts between parents and schools. No systematic reviews were found that examined the effectiveness of school-based asthma educational programs that exclusively included children and their caregivers. Research has not been systematically reviewed to determine the effectiveness of a school-based asthma educational program within a familial context. To identify the best available evidence on the effectiveness of school-based family asthma educational programs that exclusively included both children and caregivers on the quality of life and number of asthma exacerbations of children aged five to 18 years with a clinical diagnosis of asthma. Children aged five to 18 years of any gender, race or ethnicity with a clinical diagnosis of asthma and their caregivers. School-based family asthma educational programs. Randomized controlled trials. Quality of life and the number of asthma exacerbations measured by either missed days from school or work, and/or physical activity intolerance, and/or emergency hospital visits. The search strategy aimed to find both published and unpublished studies from inception of the database to August 21, 2015. Quantitative papers selected for retrieval were assessed by two independent reviewers for methodological validity before inclusion in the review using standardized critical appraisal instruments from the Joanna Briggs Institute. Data were extracted from articles included in the review using the standardized data extraction tool from the Joanna Briggs Institute. The data extracted included specific details about the populations, interventions, study methods and outcomes of significance to the review question and its specific objectives. Due to the heterogeneity among the included studies, statistical pooling and meta-analysis was not possible. Results are presented in narrative form. Six studies examining the intervention were included in this review. All six of the included studies were randomized controlled trials (RCTs). All six studies compared the effects of school-based asthma education to no school-based asthma education/usual care on quality of life and number of asthma exacerbations. Three out of four RCTs showed that children who participated in school-based family asthma educational programs demonstrated a statistically significant improvement in overall quality of life (P < 0.05). All six studies showed improvement in the number of asthma exacerbations that resulted in one or all of the measured outcomes of either missed days from school or work, physical activity intolerance and/or decreased emergency hospital visits. School-based family asthma educational programs for children that include caregivers can have a positive impact on the quality of life and asthma management of children with asthma. Other outcomes that can be positively affected by school-based family asthma educational programs include absenteeism from school or work, physical activity intolerance and emergency hospital visits as result of asthma exacerbations.

The purpose of this study was to identify the effects of a school-based obesity control program based on behavior modification and self-efficacy for obese elementary school children. The program was composed of strategies to modify diet and exercise habits and to increase self-efficacy. The subjects were 57 obese children (experimental group = 28, control group = 29) whose Röhler index was 150 and over. The program was implemented once a week for 12 weeks from September 16 to December 12, 2003. The data was analyzed by Fisher's exact probability, chi (2)-test, t-test, and Wilcoxon Rank Sum test. The Röhler index, fat mass and lean body mass of the experimental group positively changed after the intervention more than those of the control group, but there was a significant difference in the Röhler index only (t=2.06, p=.045). In addition, obesity stress significantly decreased (z=-2.86, p=.047) and dietary self-efficacy significantly increased (t=2.35, p=.023) in the experimental group than those of the control group. This study supports that a school-based obesity control program based on behavior modification and self-efficacy can be effective in decreasing obesity stress and increasing dietary self-efficacy. Parents, school nurses and the other support groups should be encouraged to participate from the planning stage of the program to be effective in weight control of obese elementary school children. Also school-based program should be implemented as an essential course in the curriculum, not as an elective.

This paper presents a first attempt at modelling the possible cost and effectiveness of reaching non-enrolled children through school-based programmes using empirical data from Egypt. A sex/school-attendance/age-structured population dynamic model was used to predict trends in infection and early disease. Four treatment delivery strategies were compared: school-based (coverage of 85 %) and school-aged targeted (coverage of 25, 50 and 85 %). The school-aged targeted strategies also included the school-based programme. For each alternative strategy, the maximum unit cost was calculated to obtain a cost-effectiveness ratio equal or smaller to the one obtained with the school-based programme (unit cost of US$ 0.60). The analysis showed that, for S. mansoni in Lower Egypt, a programme where only 85% of children attending school were treated would still prevent 77 % of the early disease cases prevented with a programme where 85 % of all school-age children were treated. However, using the school-aged targeted strategy, from US $ 0.06 to US $ 1.03 extra unit costs could be spent to reach non-enrolled children and still be more cost-effective. Treating non-enrolled children is an important consideration in maximizing the effectiveness of treatment programmes while maintaining a cost-effectiveness comparable to school-based delivery.

In this study, we investigated how student (peer) leaders of college outdoor orientation programs understand the effects of their leadership experience on personal growth and development. We collected data through in-depth interviews of 36 first-time student leaders at four colleges. Findings indicate that the majority of students at all four colleges placed high value on their leadership experiences. Students reported that the experience led to positive changes. The experiences of the leaders are explained in a four-stage model. Student leaders believe the outdoor leadership experience increased confidence to face adversity, increased confidence in exercising one’s voice appropriately, and increased leadership self-efficacy. Students also reported a positive change in interpersonal growth, describing a better ability to work well with others and facilitate social situations. Within faith-based programs, leaders also reported significant spiritual growth.