Abstract
Palytoxin (PLTX) is a highly toxic polyether identified in various marine organisms, such as Palythoa soft corals, Ostreopsis dinoflagellates, and Trichodesmium cyanobacteria. In addition to adverse effects in humans, negative impacts on different marine organisms have been often described during Ostreopsis blooms and the concomitant presence of PLTX and its analogues. Considering the increasing frequency of Ostreopsis blooms due to global warming, PLTX was investigated for its effects on Artemia franciscana, a crustacean commonly used as a model organism for ecotoxicological studies. At concentrations comparable to those detected in culture media of O. cf. ovata (1.0–10.0 nM), PLTX significantly reduced cysts hatching and induced significant mortality of the organisms, both at larval and adult stages. Adults appeared to be the most sensitive developmental stage to PLTX: significant mortality was recorded after only 12 h of exposure to PLTX concentrations > 1.0 nM, with a 50% lethal concentration (LC50) of 2.3 nM (95% confidence interval = 1.2–4.7 nM). The toxic effects of PLTX toward A. franciscana adults seem to involve oxidative stress induction. Indeed, the toxin significantly increased ROS levels and altered the activity of the major antioxidant enzymes, in particular catalase and peroxidase, and marginally glutathione-S-transferase and superoxide dismutase. On the whole, these results indicate that environmentally relevant concentrations of PLTX could have a negative effect on Artemia franciscana population, suggesting its potential ecotoxicological impact at the marine level.
Highlights
IntroductionThe marine toxin palytoxin (PLTX; Figure 1) was firstly isolated in 1971, in Hawaii, from soft corals of the genus Palythoa [1]
On A. franciscana, thein toxin initially tially evaluated for ecotoxicological its effect on cysts hatching and mortality induction the was crustacean for its effectstages on cysts hatching mortality atevaluated two developmental
In the last few decades, Ostreopsis blooms recorded in temperate coastal waters have been frequently associated with adverse effects in humans and in different marine organisms, probably due to the production and release of PLTX and its analogues
Summary
The marine toxin palytoxin (PLTX; Figure 1) was firstly isolated in 1971, in Hawaii, from soft corals of the genus Palythoa [1]. The molecular target of PLTX is the sodium–. Potassium pump, expressed in all animal cells; the toxin binds to the pump, transforming it into a non-selective cationic channel. This modification allows the passive flow of ions driven by their electrochemical gradient, which causes an ionic disequilibrium in both excitable and non-excitable cells [2]. In the last few decades, this toxin and a series of its analogues have been found in other marine organisms, such as soft corals of the genus
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