Ecosystem-based adaptation practices for smallholder farmers’ climate resilience: perceived effectiveness and co-benefit importance in Mabalane District-Mozambique

Ensuring food security and increasing crop production in the face of climate change and environmental obstacles pose a pressing concern for smallholder farmers in the southern highlands of Tanzania. Through a combined approach of qualitative and quantitative data collection methods—which includes key informant interviews, focus group discussions, observations, and household surveys—this paper examines the methods employed by smallholder farmers to bolster resilience and reduce vulnerability to environmental shifts. The results suggest that climate change exerts effects on both the village farming system and households by the following percentages of impact: food shortages (38.7% village/farming system, 29.0% household); infestation of uncommon pests (30.6% village/farming system, 27.4% household); diminishing rainfall/drought (22.6% village/farming system, 17.7% household); and crop failure (24.2% village/farming system, 29.0% household). The household farming methods practised by farmers encompass a range of strategies that include: agroforestry (37.1% adoption rate), which promotes the interspersing of trees with crops to enhance biodiversity and provide ecosystem services; and zero/minimum tillage (9.7%) practices, which reduce soil erosion and improve soil health. The challenges smallholder farmers face in adapting to climate change include the lack of appropriate tools, unfamiliarity with techniques, and inadequate support: all of which exacerbate the uncertainty surrounding the future of farmers and agriculture. By building adaptive capacity and promoting climate-smart agricultural practices, the region can improve food security, reduce vulnerability, and enhance the livelihoods of farming communities. Sustained efforts should prioritize smallholder farmers’ active participation and empowerment in climate change adaptation initiatives.

Climate change variability and its impact on agricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa pose a significant challenge to food security. In Tanzania's semi-arid regions, there is growing concern regarding the use of agroecological Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices by smallholder farmers that adhere to agroecological principles. This study aimed to investigate the use of agroecological CSA practices among smallholder farmers in Tanzania's semi-arid regions, specifically in Dodoma and Tabora regions. In addition, this study sought to identify the key factors influencing the use of these practices to enhance food security, income, and climate resilience. Data were collected from 299 households in Dodoma and Tabora using various methods including questionnaire surveys, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. Binary logistic regression was used to analyse factors influencing the usage of agroecological climate-smart agriculture practices. The findings revealed that most households in the study area use agroecological CSA practices. These practices include cereal-legume intercropping, mixed cropping, crop residue retention, crop rotation, and improved seed variety. Water harvesting, terraces, and cover crops were not used by many households. Several factors positively influenced the use of agroecological CSA. They include assistance from non-governmental organizations (NGOs), training in CSA practices, drought perception, access to credit, distance to market, membership in an organisation, education level of the household head, and total household income. To promote the use of agroecological CSA practices, both governments and NGOs should prioritise training programs. Moreover, providing frequent extension services and facilitating easier access to credit for farmers can further support the widespread use of these practices. In doing so, local communities can adapt better to the challenges of climate change, ensuring improved food security and climate resilience in the region

This study was designed to evaluate and explore the ecosystem-based adaptation practices for climate resilience with evidence from smallholder farmers’ perceptions of co-benefits and adoption decisions in Mabalane district, Mozambique. Ecosystem-based adaptation practice emerged as a sustainable approach to enhance rainfed smallholder farmers’ climate resilience while delivering multiple social, economic and environmental co-benefits. This study evaluated and explored the perceived co-benefits from adopting ecosystem-based adaptation practices and examined how they shape adoption decisions among the rainfed smallholder farmers. A mixed-method approach was employed, combining a household survey of 360 farm household heads, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. The main findings of the study revealed mixed cropping (83.9%), integrated crop-livestock (57.2%), and mulch tillage (51.1%) as the most adopted practices, as well as smallholder farmers perceiving multiple ecological and socio-economical co-benefits from adopting ecosystem-based adaptation practices. Although the study confirmed statistically significant relationships between ecosystem-based adaptation practices and the perceived co-benefits, none of the perceived co-benefits were significantly associated with an increase in the number of the adopted practices. Therefore, it is concluded that adoption decisions among smallholder farmers are not shaped by perceived ancillary benefits from ecosystem-based adaptation practices alone, but a combination of enabling conditions and resources endowments.

Merely providing support on improved yields for increased crop productivity to smallholder farmers can not improve the household food security. But parallel support for market linkages to crop producer smallholders can reap the full benefit of this increased crop productivity because lack of reliable and accessible market linking system has been found to be one of the main constraints faced by smallholder crop producer farmers for their food security improvements. So understanding the effects of crop market participation for the improvements of household food security has essential effects. The focus of this study is analyzing the effects of crop market participation in improving food security among smallholder crop producer farmers in the case of Ada’a woreda, Central Ethiopia. 160 sample size respondents of crop producer smallholder farmers represent this study. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected from primary and secondary sources. Interview schedules, focused group discussions and key informant interviews were the major data collection methods. Descriptive statistics, Tobit and multinomial logit econometric regression models were employed and operated for the analysis. The result showed that, high, low ad medium degree of crop market challenges and arable land size were significantly identified factors and affected household crop market participation intensity negatively. While none degree of crop market challenges and extension service for the household per year were significantly identified factors and affected household crop market participation intensity positively. Multinomial logit regression result revealed that, household crop market participation intensity was found significant at 1% sig. level on both moderately food secured (51_79) and food secured (80_102) household food security levels relative to food insecure (0_50) and showed its positive effect for the household food security improvement. As a result, though household crop market participation intensity influenced the household food security significantly at 1% sig. level but the food insecure situation is the most frequently occurring situation in the woreda. This implies the household crop market participation intensity in the woreda is low and producing crop for the purpose of household consumption rather than for market. Which indicated that crop market challenge reduced ways of interventions by triggering the augmentation of reliable and accessible marketing system through adaptable crop market linking approach is required for the central Ethiopia household food security enhancement. Key words: Crop market participation, food security, smallholders, Central Ethiopia/Ada’a woreda. &nbsp

Climate change poses significant threats to food security, particularly in rural Zimbabwe. Food security is of paramount concern in Zimbabwe, particularly among smallholder farmers and vulnerable populations such as female-headed households. Women play a crucial role in enhancing food security, yet their participation in food-security programmes is often limited due to gender inequality, inequity and other discriminatory norms, a practice that is common rural areas such as Nkayi district. The objective of the article was to examine the nexus between climate-change resilience and women’s participation in food-security initiatives. Three hundred and thirty-one Amalima Loko beneficiaries completed the questionnaires, in addition to six key informants and three focus group discussions. Gender dynamics and food security tend to have a strong interplay. The study sought to examine the impact of climate change on food security and suggests strategies to improve food security through increased food access. The project also magnifies the role of meaningful women’s participation in building climate-change resilience through inclusive local ownership on food security and resilience planning. The study used the Zimmerman and Boserup theories as the analytical lens to evaluate women’s participation. Access and control of resources is key. The findings highlight the importance of inclusive local ownership on food security and climate resilience planning using the Zimmerman theory to challenge traditional gender perspectives that hinder certain groups from realising their full potential in meeting personal and community needs. Furthermore, rural women play a critical role as guardians of household food security, where their full control, delegated and partnership typologies of participation demands their inclusion in all levels of decision-making and implementation processes. This results in the empowerment of women in food-security initiatives, thereby enhancing the community’s climate resilience outcomes. As a case under review, the Amalima Loko project has made great strides in empowering women, and arguable addressed some of the issues that hindered their participation.

Climate change poses a significant threat to smallholder farmers by altering rainfall patterns, increasing temperatures, and intensifying extreme weather events. These changes result in reduced crop yields, water scarcity, and greater vulnerability to pests, threatening food security and livelihoods. In Ethiopia, particularly in the Haramaya District, the livelihoods of people are predominantly reliant on subsistence rain-fed agriculture, rendering smallholder farmers highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The resilience of smallholder farmers is closely tied to their ability to adapt to changing climatic conditions. In the Haramaya District, severe climate change poses significant challenges for smallholder farmers in maintaining their agricultural livelihoods. Therefore, this study was conducted to examine the climate change adaptation strategies adopted by smallholder farmers in Haramaya District, Oromia National Regional State, Ethiopia. Both primary and secondary data sources were utilized. Primary data were gathered through household surveys involving 189 randomly selected smallholder farmers, as well as Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and Key Informant Interviews (KIIs). Secondary data were obtained from prior studies and relevant institutional reports. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and a multinomial probit model. The findings of the study show that farmers adopted a variety of climate change adaptation strategies. The most commonly reported strategy was changing livestock type (22.75%), while changing the planting period was the least adopted (16.40%). Other notable strategies included soil and water conservation (22.22%), income diversification (20.63%), and the cultivation of drought-tolerant crops (17.99%). he multinomial probit model identified several factors that significantly influence smallholder farmers’ decisions in selecting adaptation strategies in response to climate change in the study area, such as age, access to climate information, livestock holdings, irrigation access, education level, frequency of extension visits, active labor size, and access to credit. The findings emphasize the urgent need for governmental and non-governmental organizations to strengthen support for smallholder farmers by improving access to credit, raising awareness about effective climate change adaptation strategies, and providing comprehensive extension services. Additionally, efforts should focus on enhancing educational opportunities, particularly in climate resilience, and investing in long-term climate mitigation initiatives. These measures are essential to enhance the adaptive capacities of farmers and ensure their sustainable livelihoods in the face of climate change.

Climate change poses a major challenge for agriculture, directly affecting crop growth and yields while undermining food security and the livelihoods of rural communities. Farmers face significant socioeconomic and psychological pressures from climate-related stressors, including mental health issues. In Indonesia, climate change has worsened the socioeconomic conditions of farming households, yet farmers continue to adopt various adaptation strategies to sustain their livelihoods, secure household income, and maintain their well-being. This study aims to explore how smallholder farmers in Central Java, Indonesia, perceive the impacts of climate change on their livelihoods, the resources they use to cope with climate-related stressors, and the role of the Sense of Coherence (SOC) in enhancing climate resilience. Using a qualitative phenomenological approach, semi-structured interviews were conducted with one village head and nine smallholder farmers in Pati regency, Central Java. Salutogenic framework guided both the study design and analysis. Findings indicated that participants encountered climate-related stressors, including insect pest infestations, prolonged flooding, erratic seasons and weather patterns, and increased economic vulnerability. However, they could identify and mobilise resistance resources that supported their coping and adaptation, which contributed to the development of climate resilience. Three components of SOC: comprehensibility, manageability, and meaningfulness, enhanced participants’ adaptive capacity and strengthened their resilience. Although participants possessed strong informal resistance resources, the use of formal agricultural support remained limited. Improving communication, strengthening institutional structures, and ensuring transparency are therefore essential for enhancing farmers’ comprehensibility and manageability, and ultimately their resilience to climate change.

The growing number of cities in the world face a wide range of hazards, which are affected by factors such as the increased urban population and climate change. Urban development and climate change are closely related and interlinked. Today, the direct and indirect effects of climate change can be seen in countries with the lowest effect on global warming and climate change. Cities that are exposed to the risk of climate change are very vulnerable. Climate change is a globally widespread phenomenon. These cities can be said susceptible. In recent years, to cope with the adverse challenges caused by climate change, the concepts of urban ecological resilience, specifically, climate resilience have been introduced. Climate resilience is a type of urban ecological resilience, which is defined as urban resilience to climate change. In this respect, in recent years, two urban resilience concepts have been introduced to reduce these negative effects. Resilience is the ability of a system to absorb the disturbances while maintaining the basic structure in the same way and the functional methods, the capacity for self-organization and the capacity to adapt to stress and change and the capability to build back the system into its condition before a shock or intense change. Adaption to climate change focuses on reducing the vulnerability to these negative changes. Resilience has different aspects, among which climate resilience as a subcategory of urban ecological resilience is considered in this study, which includes the adaptation to and mitigation of the risks and adverse effects of climate. However, urban green infrastructure has various vital functions, including environmental, social, etc. The urban green infrastructure (UGI), according to research, has been effective in reducing the impacts of climate change in cities and enhancing climate resilience. Reviewing existing literature on the urban green infrastructure related to its role in creating urban (climate) resilience, it seems that the features of green infrastructure and which one is effective based on the development, analysis, and evaluation of urban resilience to climate change. These have not been properly addressed so far, and in general, no exact factors have been provided to assess this kind of resilience. It seems that the characteristics of urban green infrastructure can be used as an important factor affecting climate resilience in cities to achieve such factors for assessing the quality of climate resilience. Moreover, the neighborhood scale has not been fully studied in the existing literature. Given the theoretical gap existing in this field, this question arises: How and based on which features of the green infrastructure can we assess and analyze climate resilience in a city?” To answer this question, landscape ecology principles and the relationship between them and green infrastructure in cities were studied. The relationship was developed in the Yousef Abad neighborhood of Tehran and was qualitatively tested using aerial images, field surveys, and preparation of basic and analytical GIS maps. Finally, ‘effective qualities in assessing climate resilience in cities using UGI based on landscape ecology were obtained.

The research was funded by a USAID project entitled ‘Enhancing Climate Resilience of Agricultural Livelihoods’ that was implemented by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA in partnership with Makerere University Centre for Climate Research and Innovation (MUCCRI) and the National Agriculture Research Organization (NARO). The CGIAR program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) provided additional support. Abstract Smallholder farming in Sub-Saharan Africa is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and supportive local policies and plans are needed guide climate resilient farming systems. This study explores how local policies are enabling adaptation of smallholder farming to the impacts of climate change in Uganda. A mixed methods approach was used including review of policies and other literature, field assessments conducted Eastern and Central regions of Uganda. Data was collected from smallholder farmers, government officials and non-state actors at district, sub-county and village levels. Findings reveal that whereas Uganda has an elaborate national climate change policy framework that prioritizes the mainstreaming of climate change in policies and practices at all levels of government, development policies and plans at the local levels have not yet adequately incorporated climate change, and the adaptation practices adopted by smallholder farmers to address the negative impacts of climate change are more reactionary, and are not guided or influenced by local adaptation policies. Effective local adaptation policy and practice is constrained by non-inclusive policy formulation processes, institutional and human resource gaps, climate finance and unreliable climate information and advisory services. We suggest the strengthening local adaptive capacity through inclusive local adaptation policy formulation and implementation, improved climate information services and strong local institutional framework to support smallholder farmers build resilience to climate change. Keywords: climate risks, vulnerability, local adaption policies, resilient agriculture, Uganda DOI : 10.7176/JEES/9-11-09 Publication date: November 30 th 2019

This paper reviews the potential of conservation farming as a strategy to build climate resilience among smallholder farmers, particularly in developing regions. These farmers face mounting challenges due to climate change, such as extreme weather, irregular rainfall, and rising temperatures, which threaten food security and agricultural productivity. The review defines conservation farming through its core principles—minimal soil disturbance, permanent soil cover, and crop diversification—and discusses how these methods mitigate climate-related risks. Key practices like zero tillage, mulching, crop rotation, and integrated pest management are highlighted for their positive impact on soil health, water retention, erosion control, and yield stability. Drawing from an extensive literature review and case studies, the paper evaluates the effectiveness and adaptability of conservation farming across varied ecological zones. Findings indicate that these practices not only bolster resilience and reduce input costs but also support sustainable agriculture and environmental conservation. The review concludes that broad adoption of conservation farming, backed by adequate support, could play a vital role in protecting smallholder livelihoods and advancing food security in the context of climate change.

Climate change continues to disproportionately affect smallholder farmers, given their dependence on rain-fed agriculture and constrained adaptive capacity. This paper examines the smallholder farmers’ perceptions of climate change and the perceived effectiveness of adaptation practices. Data were collected from a sample of 349 respondents using a structured survey questionnaire. Purposive sampling was used to select participants for key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, multinomial logistic regression, and Friedman test, while thematic-content analysis was used to analyze qualitative data. All households were aware of climate change, mainly perceived as a decrease in rainfall and an increase in temperature over the past 30 years. Households with livestock production perceived a decrease in rainfall (p <0.000), and the age group ranging from 35 to 44 years perceived increase in temperatures (p < 0.036). Majority (95%) of the respondents reported planting drought-resistant varieties and using improved seeds (87%). Four paired adaptation practices were statistically significant (p <0.000) and perceived to be effective by households. The study recommends climate awareness programs through targeted climate education and awareness campaigns for younger farmers and women to bridge perception gaps and enhance effective adaptation practices.

This paper points the state of smallholder farmers in terms of the socio-economic, support and yielding statuses in the Capricorn District, Limpopo Province, South Africa. The aim of the paper is to evaluate the status of smallholder farmer in terms of agricultural production. The study used a representative sample consisting of 50 smallholder farmers, with 546 beneficiaries participating in the research. Four local municipalities were visited, namely, Polokwane, Molemole, Lepelle–Nkumpi and Blouberg. Quantitative and qualitative plan was used as a detailed questionnaire written in English. Focus group discussion, a stakeholder’s discussion and field observations were used. A purposive sampling technique was used to select fifty smallholder farmers, and data was coded, captured and analysed with a software Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 20). Descriptive and correlations analysis results showed a significant association among the following variables: crops planted, size of land, source of water, type of market and land acquisition. The results also indicated that natural resources like land and water are the prerequisite for a smallholder farmer to engage in agricultural production. This will enable smallholder farmers to plant different crops and to identify market opportunities. It is recommended that organisations that oversee the improvement of socio-economic conditions, policy, food security and rural development should use the results of this study as a guide for their planning and decision-making for improved smallholder farmers’ livelihoods.

The world population is increasing to the 7 billion marks and until the mid-2030s, the planet can expect to shoulder annual additions of 50–70 million more peoples leading to an issue of poverty, food security and access to fertile and healthy soils. Crop productivity, soil fertility and health are continuously declining due to removal of essential plant nutrients from the soils under cereals-based system in the current changing climate scenario. Cereals (wheat, maize, rice etc.) crops provide humankind with more nourishment than any other food class and nearly half of the total caloric requirement globally. As cereals are exhaustive (decline soil fertility) crops and therefore their continuous growth without balanced nutrients management decline crop productivity, soil fertility and soil health. Sustainable soil management (SSM) practices not only increase crop productivity but also improve soil fertility, health and sustainability. Widespread adoption of SSM practices generates multiple socio-economic benefits for both smallholder farmers and large-scale agricultural producers. We concluded from the review that integrated nutrients management (INM) improve soil health for sustained crop productivity in cereal based system. The concept of INM is the combined application of chemical fertilizers [nitrogenous fertilizers (urea, ammonium sulphate etc.), phosphatic fertilizers (Di-ammonium phosphate, single super phosphate etc.), and potash fertilizers (sulphate of potash, muriate of potash etc.) zinc etc.) plus incorporation of different organic matter sources [(1) animal-based sources (poultry manure, cattle manure, sheep manure, goat manure etc.) and (2) plant-based sources e.g. vegetables residues (onion, garlic etc.), cereals residues (wheat, maize, rice etc.), legumes/pulses residues (chickpea, faba bean, mungbean, cowpea etc.) and tree residues (peach, pepper mulberry etc.)] into the soil along with application of biofertilizers (beneficial microbes) improve soil fertility and health, crop growth and yield, growers income and sustainability. We concluded that INM practices which are one of the best SSM practices are recommended in exhaustive cereal-based system to decrease soil degradation due to nutrients losses and increase soil and crop productivity.

Evidence on how coping practices for immediate climate variations can transform into long-term adaptive capacity are relatively limited. This study addressed this gap by identifying the coping practices for short-term climate variations and the adaptation measures used by smallholder farmers to address future climate change in northeast Ghana. The paper used a mixed-methods approach, including household surveys, focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Data were collected from 555 households located in six communities across three districts in northeast Ghana. Results indicated that smallholder farmers were employing a host of practices to address the threats posed by climate change. Key adaptation practices included the planting of drought-tolerant crop varieties, the use of indigenous knowledge, intensification of irrigation, migration, adjusting the planting calendar, crop diversification, mixed farming, and sustainable land management practices. On the contrary, short-term coping practices reported by the study participants included the sale of non-farm assets, complementing agriculture with non-farm jobs, selling livestock, engaging in wage labor, charcoal burning and reliance on social networks. The results further revealed that barriers to climate change adaptation and coping practices differed by gender. The paper recommends that capacities of smallholder farmers in vulnerability hotspots should be enhanced to address immediate climate variations, as well as future climate changes. Ghana’s climate change and agricultural policies should prioritize adaptations by smallholder farmers in addressing threats posed by climate change.

Climate Resilient Villages for Sustainable Food Security in Tropical India: Concept, Process, Technologies, Institutions, and Impacts