Ecological species groups and trait convergence of urban spontaneous plants: Evidence from 16 cities within biodiversity hotspots

Exploring the relationships between ecology and species traits in cyanolichens: A case study on Italy

In this article we question whether ecological species groups are appropriate for describing the plant cover of the Netherlands with the aid of a national database containing distribution data of indigenous plant species on a kilometre square basis. To answer the question, a comparison is made with a national division of species into phytosociological groups. On the basis of a correlation analysis performed on the flora database, we conclude that the ecological groups are of better use for the description of the national plant cover than the phytosociological groups.

Identification of the primary factors that influence the ecological distribution of species groups is important to managers of lowland‐mountain forests in northern Iran. The aim of this study was to identify main ecological species groups, describe the site conditions associated with these species groups and the relationships between environmental factors and the distribution of ecological species groups using multi‐variate analysis (Detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) and Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA)). For this purpose, 50 relevés (400 m 2 each) were sampled using the Braun‐Blanquet method. Vegetation was classified into three ecological species groups using a modified two‐way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN). In each relevé, environmental factors (topographic and soil variables) were measured and analysed using one‐way ANOVA and Pearson r statistics. Further, species diversity indices were determined for the identified ecological species groups. Our results show that the environmental factors, e.g. elevation, slope, slope aspect, soil texture, pH and organic matter, were the most important factors explaining the distribution of the three ecological species groups in the study area. The diversity of the ecological species groups decreased with elevation. The results provide an ecological basis for forest management and for developing strategies for forest conservation in the study area.

A combination of field and tabular methods and multivariate analyses were used to develop groups of ground flora species (i.e., ecological species groups) that characterize and distinguish highly disturbed, landform-level ecosystems dominated by jack pine in northern Lower Michigan. The endangered Kirtland's warbler formerly or currently occupied the large glacial landforms for which species groups were developed. Eight such ecological species groups were created using 31 woody and herbaceous species sampled in 144 plots within a 20,000 km2 geographic region of uniform climate and regional physiography. The groups were initially constructed using subjective, observation-based groupings of species with similar presence and abundance along soil moisture and fertility gradients. Species groups were corroborated using TWINSPAN and detrended correspondence analysis, and the environmental conditions indicated by each were described and contrasted based upon field observations and canonical correspondence analysis. Two of the eight species groups indicated very dry, infertile sites, and one was indicative of a very broad range of sites dominated by jack pine. The remaining five groups reflected a relatively gentle environmental gradient within the set of ecosystems we sampled, indicating small differences along a soil moisture gradient and less so along a soil fertility and light availability gradient. The groups were applied successfully for the majority of an area that had been repeatedly logged and/or burned for at least 120 years. In addition, the groups were successful when tested on sites with highly disturbed upper soil strata furrowed for the establishment of plantations between the 1960s and 1980s. Within the boundaries of the regional ecosystems for which they were developed, ecological species groups reflect the integrated effects of multiple site factors that control the height growth rates of jack pine trees that, in turn, determine the duration of Kirtland's warbler occupancy. While usually applied at the scale of ecosystem types, our results demonstrate that ecological species groups may also provide the ecological basis for distinguishing ecosystems at broader scales. When examined simultaneously in the field with physiography, microclimate, and soil factors, the groups are therefore useful in identifying and classifying ecosystem units at the scale of landforms, the appropriate scale of management for the Kirtland's warbler.

Bazdid Vahdati F, Saeidi Mehrvarz Sh, Naqinezhad A, Gholizadeh H. 2014. How plant diversity features change across ecological species groups? A case study of a temperate deciduous forest in northern Iran. Biodiversitas 15: 31-38. Species diversity is one of the most important indices for evaluating the stability and productivity of forest ecosystems. The aim of this research was to recognize ecological species groups and to determine the relationship between environmental variables and the distribution of ecological species groups. For this purpose, 25 400-m 2 relevés were sampled using the Braun-Blanquet method. Vegetation was classified using modified Two-Way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN) and resulted in three ecological species groups. Different species diversity indices were applied to quantify diversity of these species groups. ANOVA and Duncan’s tests indicated that all species and environmental variables except altitude changed significantly across the species groups. The results also showed that the group located in the northern aspect and on low slopes had the highest diversity indices compared with groups located in dry aspects and on high slopes. In reality, abundant precipitation (northern aspect) and soil enrichment (low slopes) are principal factors that provide suitable conditions for plant growth and species diversity. Thus, the study of diversity changes in ecological species groups can result in an ecologically precise perspective for managing forest ecosystems.

Ravanbakhsh M, Amini T, Hosseini SMN. 2015. Plant species diversity among ecological species groups in the Caspian Sea coastal sand dune; Case study: Guilan Province, North of Iran. Biodiversitas 16: 16-21. Biodiversity is often discussed in terms of species diversity is concentrated. Species diversity is one of the important characteristics of biological communities and its as a functionof the number and size represent populations of species in a special geographic region.The aim of this study was to identification ofecological species groups and investigates the diversity among ecological species groups. The research area comprises a coastal dunesystem in northern of Guilan Province, Iran. Vegetation sampling was carried out along 22 shore perpendicular transects, approximately500-m long. A total of 62 plot of 25 square meters were taken in transects. In each sampled plot, the cover percentage value of eachspecies was estimated using Bran-Blanquet scales. Vegetation classified using Two-Way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN). Thecomparison of diversity indices among groups were performed with ANOVA test. The results revealed that there were 232 plant taxaand 8 ecological species group in the region. Results of analysis of variance in species diversity indices showed significant differencesamong the groups in terms of biodiversity indices. The survey of variation in the groups showed that groups 5 and 6 had the highest andgroups 1, 2, 3, and 7 had the lowest indices. Checking of the group's position with high diversity in comparison with other groups in thiscoastal area indicates that the group settled on the coastal land with stabilized soil and proper distance from the sea had higher diversityindices.

Pourbabaei H, Haghgooy T. 2012. Plant species diversity in the ecological species groups in the Kandelat Forest Park, Guilan, North of Iran. Biodiversitas 13: 7-12. Forest vegetation indicates conditions and productivity potential of forest habitat, because it reflects the interaction of climate, soil and topography. The aim of this research was to study relationship between vegetation and topography factors. In order to do this research, type, number and percentage cover of trees, shrubs (sample plot with 1000 m2 area) and type and percentage cover of herbaceous species (sample plot with 64 m2 area) investigated and recorded. The coverage percent of species were estimated on the basis of Domin scale. Vegetation classified using Two-Way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN). The results revealed that there were 6 ecosystem units (ecological groups) in the region. The comparison of diversity indices and topographicfactors between groups were performed with ANOVA test. Results also indicated that there were significant differences between groups in terms of biodiversity indices and topographic factors. The formation of a particular group is affected by a combination of environment variables. The aspect was the most important variable of topographic factors in this study.

Pinus ponderosa forests occupy numerous topographic and soil complexes across vast areas of the southwestern United States, yet few data exist on species distributions and vegetation–environment relationships for these environmentally diverse landscapes. We measured topography, soils, and vegetation on 66, 0.05-ha plots within a 110,000-ha P. ponderosa landscape in northern Arizona, USA, to discern vegetation–environment relationships on this landscape. We analyzed associations of environmental variables with plant communities and with single-species distributions, and we classified ecological species groups (co-occurring plant species exhibiting similar environmental affinities). Gradients in community composition paralleled gradients in soil texture, available water, organic C, total N, and geographic precipitation patterns. Soil parent material, affected by the presence or absence of volcanic activity, is a primary factor constraining vegetation patterns on this landscape. Using discriminant analysis, we built a model that correctly classified the most important of four grasses (Bouteloua gracilis, Muhlenbergia montana, Sporobolus interruptus, or Festuca arizonica) on 70–80% of plots based on five environmental variables related to soil moisture and resource levels. We also classified 52 of the 271 detected plant species into 18 ecological species groups. Species groups ranged from Phacelia and Bahia groups occupying xeric, volcanic cinder soils low in organic C and total N, to Festuca and Lathyrus groups characterizing moist, loam and silt loam soils. We applied the species groups by estimating P. ponderosa diameter increment in a regression tree using abundances of species groups. The most rapid P. ponderosa diameter growth of 5 mm/year occurred on plots with high importance of the Festuca and Lathyrus groups. Our results on this semi-arid landscape support several general ecological species group principles chiefly developed in temperate regions, and suggest that vegetation–environment research has great potential for enhancing our understanding of P. ponderosa forests occupying vast areas of the southwestern United States.

The Cerrado and the Dense Ombrophilous Forest are important brazilian biomes that together cover more than half of the country's territory. They have a vast and rich plant diversity which often has a block in the germination process called dormancy. Dormancy can be defined as an obstruction in the germination of viable and intact seeds, even when all the favorable conditions are present. This work aimed to verify, through a literature survey, the occurrence of dormancy in seeds of plant species of the Brazilian Cerrado and Dense Ombrophilous Forest, comparing its occurrence between ecological groups of species, biomes and types of dormancy. The results showed that in Cerrado dormancy was observed in 56% of the species, whereas in Dense Ombrophilous Forest this number reduces to 42%. These data revealed an association between the presence of dormancy and the Cerrado. Also, in this biome, it was possible to verify a higher occurrence of physical dormancy in the seeds, with up to 63% of its dormant species presenting this type of dormancy. Pioneer species of Cerrado exhibited a greater dormancy percentage when comparing to climax, while this fact was not noticed in the forest, which resulted in an association between the ecological group of pioneer species from Cerrado and the dormancy process. These results show that dormancy may be related to more arid biomes and physical dormancy appears to be the most common type in these environments. Moreover, dormancy seems to be correlated with pioneer species of Cerrado, but not Forest

The Cerrado and the Dense Ombrophilous Forest are important brazilian biomes that together cover more than half of the country's territory. They have a vast and rich plant diversity which often has a block in the germination process called dormancy. Dormancy can be defined as an obstruction in the germination of viable and intact seeds, even when all the favorable conditions are present. This work aimed to verify, through a literature survey, the occurrence of dormancy in seeds of plant species of the Brazilian Cerrado and Dense Ombrophilous Forest, comparing its occurrence between ecological groups of species, biomes and types of dormancy. The results showed that in Cerrado dormancy was observed in 56% of the species, whereas in Dense Ombrophilous Forest this number reduces to 42%. These data revealed an association between the presence of dormancy and the Cerrado. Also, in this biome, it was possible to verify a higher occurrence of physical dormancy in the seeds, with up to 63% of its dormant species presenting this type of dormancy. Pioneer species of Cerrado exhibited a greater dormancy percentage when comparing to climax, while this fact was not noticed in the forest, which resulted in an association between the ecological group of pioneer species from Cerrado and the dormancy process. These results show that dormancy may be related to more arid biomes and physical dormancy appears to be the most common type in these environments. Moreover, dormancy seems to be correlated with pioneer species of Cerrado, but not Forest

A comparison of fish communities of subtidal seagrass beds and sandy seabeds in 13 marine embayments of a Caribbean island, based on species, families, size distribution and functional groups

The study of ecological species groups (ESGs) and interspecific interactions offers important insights into the mechanisms that drive tree species coexistence and enhances our understanding of plant community structure, function, and taxonomy. This study aimed to identify ESGs within a seasonal tropical forest in Phou Khao Khouay National Park, located in central Laos, and to investigate the key environmental factors influencing their distribution. Additionally, the study analysed community stability and interspecific associations among woody species using various statistical techniques, including Variance Ratio (VR), chi-squared tests, Association Coefficients (AC), and percentage of Co-occurrence (PC). To collect data, thirty-two permanent plots, each covering an area of 2500 m² (50 × 50 m), were established. In each plot, floristic data and species abundance were recorded, along with soil samples from two depths (0–10 cm and 10–20 cm) for physicochemical analysis. Vegetation data were classified using Two-Way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN), and differences between ESGs were evaluated using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Indicator Species Analysis (ISA) was applied to identify key species for each ESG, while Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was employed to explore the relationships between ESGs and environmental variables. The results revealed that the woody plant communities in the study area were relatively stable, exhibiting predominantly positive interspecific associations. Additionally, the distribution of the fosur identified ESGs showed a strong correlation with topographical factors – such as elevation, aspect, and slope – and soil properties, including pH, organic matter content, cation exchange capacity, total nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and soil texture. These findings underscore the importance of recognizing microhabitats that support the growth and conservation of woody plant species in Phou Khao Khouay National Park, offering valuable insights for future ecological research and conservation initiatives.

The ecological grouping (Decreaser and Increaser groups) of individual species was determined on two topographical units in the Highland Sourveld of the Orange Free State. For this purpose gradients were selected, giving special attention to fence‐line comparisons, vegetation at different distances from watering points and ungrazed vegetation. The ecological grouping (Decreaser and Increaser groups) of species on a grazing gradient differed not only for different topographical units, but also for sub‐habitats within a certain unit. Broad standardized groupings of species into Decreaser and Increaser groups are therefore scientifically wrong and of little practical use.

Managed broadleaf deciduous forests are an important type of forest vegetation in Central Europe, also in the Western Carpathians. These forests are both economically and environmentally valuable. However, little is known about ecological species groups and the inter-specific associations of dominant species in temperate deciduous managed forests in Central Europe. Since the forest stands are in a managed landscape, they are not consistent with the traditionally recognized and used vegetation associations in the Western Carpathians. For these reasons our research contributes to understanding the consequences of broadleaf deciduous forest management. The aim of this research was the determination of ecological species groups and an investigation into the main environmental drivers, in order to explain the distribution of ecological species groups. The numerical TWINSPAN classification was selected to distribute 146 relevés to the five ecological species groups. Of these, 77 relevés were divided into two groups with Fagus sylvatica dominant, while 63 relevés were Quercus petraea dominant. Carpinus betulus, Tilia cordata and Fraxinus excelsior were dominant in 19 relevés. Constrained Analysis of Principal Components was used to explain the vegetation–environment relationship on three transects in the Male Karpaty Mountains. Altitude, pH, Ca, C, K and Mg were selected as the significant environmental drivers responsible for a large part of the species group variability (31.8%). The main requirement for sustainable forest management is knowledge of the vegetation–environment relationship and this research was focused on gaining such understanding. This knowledge can be used as a decision support tool for sustainable management in managed deciduous forests.

Sirami EV, Marsono Dj, Sadono R, Imron MA. 2019. Typology of native species as the shade tree for merbau (Intsia bijuga) plantations in Papua, Indonesia based on ecological species group. Biodiversitas 20: 43-53. Ecological species group is an ecological principle that can be used as a reference in determining the potential native tree species of Papua as the shade trees for merbau in the mixed forest plantations. This research was conducted to identify the potential native trees as the shade for merbau plantation in Papua. The data collection used systematic line technique with hypothetical plot and sampling tree as the plot center. The Dice Index was used to analyze the level of association between merbau and the neighboring trees as well as to serve as a basis for determining ESG and Important Value Index was used to analyze the level of tree dominance. The main potential shade trees consisting of Pometia coriacea Radlk., Lepiniopsis ternatensi Valeton, Spathiostemon javensis Blume, Palaquium amboinense Burck., and Pimelodendron amboinicum Hassk. Whereas complementary and alternative potential shade consisting of Haplolobus lanceolatus H.J.Lam ex Leenh, Haplolobus celebicus H.J.Lam, Horsfieldia laevigata Warb., Horsfieldia irya (Gaertn.)Warb. Prunus costata Kalkman, Sterculia macrophylla Vent., Dysoxylum mollissimum Blume, Pertusadina multifolia (Havil.) Ridsdale, Streblus elongatus (Miq.) Corner and Geijera salicifolia Schott. The main shade trees possessed a main function for rendering shade toward younger merbau in the plantation area. Meanwhile, complementary and alternative shade trees were intended for increasing soil nutrient availability and optimizing microclimate surround merbau seedlings.