Eco-Friendly Pavement Innovation: Compressive Strength of Plastic–Sand Paver Blocks

The research in this thesis aims to find out the process of developing plastic waste products into paving blocks, to find out the business prospects of paving blocks from plastic waste in the city of Palopo and to find out the business implications of paving blocks from plastic waste in the city of Palopo. The type of research data uses research and development methods and descriptive quantitative methods. This research was conducted by conducting product-making experiments and interviews. The development techniques used by researchers are the previous research stage, the initial product development stage, the expert validation stage, and the compressive strength test stage. Analysis of the data used by the author is an analysis of the compressive strength of paving blocks, analysis of economic value, and analysis of contribution to the environment. The results showed that Sample B with a composition of 1.5 kg of plastic waste and 1.5 kg of sand, sample C with a composition of 2.25 kg of plastic waste and 0.79 kg of sand, sample D with a composition of 1.5 kg of plastic waste and 1 .9 kg meets the eligibility standard for paving block quality based on SNI 030691 1996 quality standard. Paving block products made from plastic waste have the potential to be developed into a business with a Break Event Point occurring in the 1st month. The profit by producing 1,500 paving blocks has already benefited from the business with the first month's R/C Ratio of 1.1 and the first year's R/C Ratio of 1.4. Paving block products have implications for reducing the amount of plastic waste in the city of Palopo by making plastic waste a raw material for making paving block products. 25 Kg of plastic waste and 0.79 Kg of Sand, sample D with a composition of 1.5 Kg of plastic waste and 1.9 Kg met the eligibility standards for paving block quality based on SNI 030691 1996 quality standards. Paving block products made from plastic waste have the potential to be developed into business with a Break Event Point occurring in the 1st month. The profit by producing 1,500 paving blocks has already benefited from the business with the first month's R/C Ratio of 1.1 and the first year's R/C Ratio of 1.4. Paving block products have implications for reducing the amount of plastic waste in the city of Palopo by making plastic waste a raw material for making paving block products. 25 Kg of plastic waste and 0.79 Kg of Sand, sample D with a composition of 1.5 Kg of plastic waste and 1.9 Kg met the eligibility standards for paving block quality based on SNI 030691 1996 quality standards. Paving block products made from plastic waste have the potential to be developed into business with a Break Event Point occurring in the 1st month. The profit by producing 1,500 paving blocks has already benefited from the business with the first month's R/C Ratio of 1.1 and the first year's R/C Ratio of 1.4. Paving block products have implications for reducing the amount of plastic waste in the city of Palopo by making plastic waste a raw material for making paving block products. Paving block products made from plastic waste have the potential to be developed into a business with a Break Event Point occurring in the 1st month. The profit by producing 1,500 paving blocks has already benefited from the business with the first month's R/C Ratio of 1.1 and the first year's R/C Ratio of 1.4. Paving block products have implications for reducing the amount of plastic waste in the city of Palopo by making plastic waste a raw material for making paving block products. Paving block products made from plastic waste have the potential to be developed into a business with a Break Event Point occurring in the 1st month. The profit by producing 1,500 paving blocks has already benefited from the business with the first month's R/C Ratio of 1.1 and the first year's R/C Ratio of 1.4. Paving block products have implications for reducing the amount of plastic waste in the city of Palopo by making plastic waste a raw material for making paving block products.

The current methods of managing plastic waste especially in developing countries have become an issue of environmental and public health concern globally. This has led environmentalists and scientists to work on finding day-to-day activities that can help to reduce the plastic waste disposal problem. Recycling and reuse of plastic waste into construction materials is a valid way to reduce the effect of this improper disposal of plastic waste. This will help to reduce the negative impact of the high cost of cement in the construction industry. In this research, polyethylene waste (table water sachet) was used as a replacement for cement in the construction of paving blocks. The sample with a 1:4 mixing ratio was found to have the highest compressive strength among the different mix ratio examined. Paving blocks were then produced with this mixing ratio from plastic-aggregates and plastic-aggregate-fibre and compared with the standard cement-aggregate paving blocks for their compressive and tensile strengths, water absorption, thickness swelling, density, and thermal properties (thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and horizontal burning rate). Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) with Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) was also conducted on the paving blocks to determine the distribution of the particles of the blocks, the compatibility of the matrix, and their elemental composition. The results of the compressive strength test showed 18.1667 Nmm<sup>-2</sup> for plastic-aggregate block, though lower when compared with the cement-aggregate block with a compressive strength of 21.6667 Nmm<sup>-2</sup>. The plastic-aggregate block has the least water absorption value among the three samples. The 0.1350% and 1.8861% water absorption values obtained for the plastic-aggregate and plastic-aggregate-fibre bricks respectively showed an impressive water absorption which falls within the maximum of 5% water absorption for quality paving blocks. The plastic-aggregate and plastic-aggregate-fibre both also recorded lower density when compared with the cement-aggregate block, which gives them a logistic advantage over the cement-aggregate block in the case of transporting them from one location to another. The blocks were found to be stable at low temperatures. The SEM images of the plastic-aggregate and plastic-fibre-aggregate paving blocks clearly showed a consistent dispersion of the plastic waste particles within the aggregate matrix over that of the cement-aggregate paving block. Therefore, plastic-aggregate brick can be recommended for use as paving bricks for low-traffic roads, walkways, parks, and gardens, although there is need to carry out further studies on other material properties of the plastic-based paving block.

India is confronted with the substantial issue of plastic debris due to the absence of an efficient waste management infrastructure. Recycled plastic has the potential to enhance various construction materials, such as roofing tiles, paving blocks, and insulation. The aforementioned materials possess notable attributes such as high strength, low weight, and exceptional resistance to extreme temperatures and humidity. The objective of this study is to ascertain feasible alternatives for manufacturing road paver blocks utilizing plastic waste (Polyethene terephthalate (PET)), and M-sand (stone dust). Three variations of a discarded plastic cube measuring 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm were prepared for the experiment. The experimental findings indicated that a ratio of 1:4 was determined to be the most effective in achieving the desired level of compressive strength. I-section road and brick paver blocks were produced as an alternative to the traditional concrete ones. Compressive strength tests were performed on I-sections and brick paver blocks, revealing that the 1:4 mix ratio exhibited the highest average compressive strength for both materials. The findings indicated that including plastic waste positively impacted the compressive strength of the I-sections and brick paver blocks. Additionally, the quality grading of these materials was evaluated using an ultrasonic pulse velocity test. The ultrasonic pulse velocity test results demonstrated a high-quality grading for the I-sections and brick paver blocks. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) tests assessed the microstructural behavior and performance. The results of this study demonstrate that incorporating plastic waste in combination with M-sand can effectively improve the mechanical characteristics of composite materials, rendering them viable for use in construction-related purposes.

Plastic wastes to pavement blocks: A significant alternative way to reducing plastic wastes generation and accumulation in Ghana

The environmental concern of plastic waste (PW) generation has escalated to an alarming level due to the versatility and high demand in various applications. In order to search for an effective way to utilise PW, reusing them for the production of construction material appears as an environmentally-friendly approach. This is also because conventional construction materials often consume high energy during production has caused many environmental impacts. This review paper summarises the previous studies on reusing various PW as raw material and aggregate for construction and its properties with special attention to bricks and paving blocks. This paper begins by illustrating on the properties of plastics and the impacts of PW to the environment. Followed by discussion on reusing PW and its impacts on the overall properties of construction material. This review found that limited studies had been conducted on the usage of PW in the production of the paving block. Besides, most of the studies focused predominantly on compressive strength and water absorption as the main parameters to evaluate the characteristics of bricks and paving blocks. It is concluded that the use of PW in construction material could possibly serve as a sustainable source for construction material in the future.

Besides reducing environmental pollution, the use of garbage or plastic waste can also be used as an alternative to building materials. The potential for utilizing plastic waste still needs to be developed, by conducting research on plastic waste to be substituted into paving block making materials, by replacing some of the sand material in normal paving blocks. The research used is an experimental method. In this test the test object was made by adding additives/mixture of plastic waste as a filler/mixture in the paving block mix with a percentage of plastic mixture of 2.56%, 5.26%, 8.11%, 10.11%. Then the paving block is tested for compressive strength at the age of 28 days which is possible to have reached the maximum compressive strength value. The results of the paving block compressive strength test will increase according to the increase in the percentage of plastic mixture. The compressive strength of paving blocks with a plastic mixture of 0%, 2.56%, 5.26%, 8.11% and 10.11% obtained compressive strengths of 10.44 MPa, 10.64 MPa, 10.95 respectively MPa, 11.15 MPa and 11.33 MPa. The increase in compressive strength of normal paving blocks (0% mixture of plastic waste) was 1.83%, 4.6%, 6.35% and 7.86%. The highest compressive strength occurs in paving blocks with a mixture percentage of 10.11% plastic waste, according to the SNI-03-0691-1996 standard the compressive strength is included in the quality level D which can be used for parks and other uses.

Plastic wastes are increasing at an alarming rate and adversely affecting environment as they are not easily degraded. Worse still, roads along with parking yards have significantly shorter design life and so do other alternative road paving techniques such as reinforced concrete slabs and concrete paving blocks (developing countries). Owing to these challenges, this research aimed to minimize the quantity of plastic wastes dumped in Kigali landfills by recycling it into construction materials while considering both economic and environmental benefits. Specific objectives included to maximize the use of post-consumer plastic waste and produce alternative eco-friendly building products.Similarly, the research aimed at determining the melting point and subsequent effects of temperature on high density polyethylene (HDPE) as well as determining the mix ratio of the material components that gives the highest compressive strength. Finally, the research aimed at assessing the performance of paving material made of sand and plastic wastes.In order to achieve the stated objectives, three samples per data point were prepared and quantity of sand content was varying by 1:3; 1:4; 1:5 respectively while keeping plastic content constant. The samples were placed in mould of dimension 100,65 mm in diameter and height respectively where they cooled and set. Compaction was done using standard method. Afterwards, the respective samples were tested for compressive strength and water absorption. Compressive strength test showed the values of 21.73 N/mm2, 26.15 N/mm2, 4.79 N/mm2 before heat exposure and 17.79 N/mm2, 22.37 N/mm2, 3.52 N/mm2 after exposure to 350C for 12 hours for the pavers in HDPE and sand mix ratio of 1:3, 1:4 and 1:5 respectively. Water absorption test showed an average value of 0.052% which is lower compared to the cement concrete made pavers.The research concluded that if made and put into use, these pavers will not only reduce construction costs especially those for repairs, but also assist in environmental conservation. Roads and parking yards will be cheaply constructed, and with the increased durability, accessibility will be improved and economic growth boostered.Keywords: HDPE, wastes, recycle, paver, compressive strength

Paving blocks are the result of a mixture of Portland cement, sand, water, and with or without other additives. Based on the results of sampling the composition of plastic waste in temporary shelters for 7 days, the percentage of plastic waste generated is 14%, whereas the percentage of LDPE plastic waste is 8% and the non-LDPE is 6%. This research was conducted with a ratio of cement and sand of 1: 4 with variations of a mixture of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) plastic at 0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2% by weight of sand. Paving block quality testing was carried out at the Environmental Engineering and Quality Laboratory, Department of Environmental Engineering and Concrete Laboratory, Civil Engineering, Adhi Tama Institute of Technology Surabaya. The results of the study showed that the greatest compressive strength was obtained in paving blocks with a plastic variation of 0.5%, which is 24,83 MPa. While the lowest compressive strength value is obtained at the paving block variation of 1.5%, which is 12.32 Mpa. The test results for the largest water absorption were obtained on paving blocks with a plastic variation of 2% with an average absorption of 6.45%, while the lowest water absorption was found in paving blocks with 1% plastic variation with an average absorption of 4.65%. it was concluded that the addition of reduced density polyethylene (LDPE) plastic from 0.5% to 2% had no significant impact on the addition of compressive strength and water absorption but tended to experience a decrease in the quality of the comparison sample. The potential for reducing LDPE plastic waste is 203,376 grams/day and produces 8,135 paving blocks with quality B. The purpose of this study is to the utilization of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) plastic waste in paving blocks and the effect on the quality of compressive strength and water absorption.

Plastic waste is one of the most complex problems especially in the Parepare region. Recycling of plastic waste is rare, so the number of garbage piles increases annually. Paving block made from PET plastic waste is one form of effort to reduce the accumulation of plastic waste. The non biodegradable properties of polyethylene cause the plastic aggregate in paving block not to be easily crushed, so it can keep paving block density over a long period of time. The purpose of this study was to determine the stability and compressive strength of paving blocks made of plastic with a variation of 50% PET, 75% PET and 100% PET with bendrat wire fiber, and to find out what the proportion of plastic and sand is in the paving block mixture, which results in optimal compressive strength. The method used is the experimental trial and error method, by experimenting directly in the laboratory. The experiment in question is to make comparisons of the variables studied, so as to produce conclusions that are correlated with the variables studied. From several variations of the planned pet percentage, only 1 variation has stability, namely the 50% PET variant, and the most optimal proportion of plastic and sand is found at 50% PET. The compressive strength obtained is 14.72 MPa for the cube test object and for the paving block specimen it has a compressive strength of 10.16 MPa.

Road pavements generally use asphalt and cement concrete as flexible and rigid pavements. A flexible pavement covering material with concrete paving blocks has been developed for low-traffic road structures. Paving block compressive strength tests still use beam samples; some have used cube samples. Concrete waste and plastic waste can reduce material requirements and support environmental sustainability. Therefore, it is used as a recycled material. This research utilizes concrete waste and plastic waste in the composition of the concrete paving block mixture. Compressive and flexural strength tests with a cement and aggregate ratio 1:3 was used in this study. The aggregate comprises screening, sand, stone ash, recycled concrete aggregate, and plastic waste additives. The test results showed that the concrete paving block test objects in the form of cubes and beams produced different characteristics. Cube-shaped concrete paving blocks make more realistic compressive strength test values. Judging from the results of the compressive strength and flexural strength tests, the addition of plastic decreased the strength of the concrete paving block. Still, the addition of 4-6% plastic waste positively contributed to the value of flexural strength.

Plastic waste poses a significant hazard to the environment as a result of its high production rates, which endanger both the environment and its inhabitants. Similarly, another concern is the production of cement, which accounts for roughly 8% of global CO2 emissions. Thus, recycling plastic waste as a replacement for cementitious materials may be a more effective strategy for waste minimisation and cement elimination. Therefore, in this study, plastic waste (low-density polyethylene) is utilised in the production of plastic sand paver blocks without the use of cement. In addition to this, basalt fibers which is a green industrial material is also added in the production of eco-friendly plastic sand paver blocks to satisfy the standard of ASTM C902-15 of 20 N/mm2 for the light traffic. In order to make the paver blocks, the LDPE waste plastic was melted outside in the open air and then combined with sand. Variations were made to the ratio of LDPE to sand, the proportion of basalt fibers, and sand particle size. Paver blocks were evaluated for their compressive strength, water absorption, and at different temperatures. Including 0.5% percent basalt fiber of length 4 mm gives us the best result by enhancing compressive strength by 20.5% and decreasing water absorption by 50.5%. The best results were obtained with a ratio of 30:70 LDPE to sand, while the finest sand provides the greatest compressive strength. Moreover, the temperature effect was also studied from 0 to 60 °C, and the basalt fibers incorporated in plastic paver blocks showed only a 20% decrease in compressive strength at 60 °C. This research has produced eco-friendly paver blocks by removing cement and replacing it with plastic waste, which will benefit the environment, save money, reduce carbon dioxide emissions, and be suitable for low-traffic areas, all of which contribute to sustainable development.

PET plastic waste that is difficult to decompose is one of the main challenges in environmental management. This research aims to develop a paving block production technology made from PET plastic waste with a more efficient mixing method, using a mixing machine with a temperature control system and mechanical stirring. The paving block sample is made with a composition of 25% PET plastic and 75% fine aggregate. The conventional mixing method, which uses manual stirring and heating with a stove, is compared to the machine method which is equipped with automatic control to maintain the homogeneity of the mixture and temperature stability. Next, the paving block is tested for compressive strength to evaluate the quality of the production result. The results showed that the machine method produced paving blocks with an average compressive strength of 20.10 MPa, higher than the conventional method which only reached 15.6 MPa. The standard deviation in the engine method is lower (1.71) than in the conventional method (5.15), indicating more consistent quality. In terms of efficiency, the machine method reduces production time by up to 48%, although the cost per paving block is slightly higher, which is Rp 4,840.5 compared to Rp 4,166 in the conventional method. This research shows that the innovation of mixing machines not only improves the quality and efficiency of paving block production, but also supports environmental sustainability by utilizing plastic waste as construction materials. The main contribution of this research is the development of more reliable, time-saving, and high-quality production methods for recycling-based material applications in the large-scale construction industry.

Abstract. Waste volume in Karawang City that can be handled will only be 40% and the other 60% will be managed by waste banks and temporary shelter. Innovation in waste recycling is needed, one of which is making plastic waste as raw material for paving block production. This research aims to assess how using plastic waste as a material in making paving blocks affects their compressive strength and water absorption, with the potential to reduce overall plastic waste and explore alternatives to conventional materials. This research focuses on testing water absorption capacity and compressive strength based on SNI 03–0691–1996 standards for making paving blocks. The water absorption test results on PVG 1 and 2 are up to 38.46% larger than PVG 3 and 4 because there are many cavities in PVG 1 and 2 that making were below standard, and PVG 3 and 4 were at quality standard level B. The compressive quality test of PVG 1 and 2 have a more noticeable compressive quality regard with a typical regard of 6,075 MPa compared to clearing squares with a full plastic composition with an ordinary regard of 4,745 MPa. It happens since of insufficient and manual burning, but it can too be caused by an ought to utilize plastic waste and the got to age the clearing squares being attempted. When compared with the quality Indonesian National Standard (SNI 03 - 0691 – 1996), the compressive quality test of the clearing inside the examination did not meet the standard.Keywords: Plastic Waste, Paving Block, Water Absorption Test, Compressive Strength

Plastic waste management is an international concern. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic waste is present everywhere in Addis Ababa relative to other types of plastic waste and it is an international concern regarding environmental problems. The amount of plastic trash produced globally is increasing at a rapid rate, and this pollution is caused by improper disposal, the waste’s non-biodegradability, and the harmful gases released during incineration pose a hazard to human health. Because it’s used in so many commonplace items, such as bottles and containers for the food and beverage sectors, polyethylene terephthalate, or PET, is one of the most widely used consumer polymers. Because of its many characteristics, including its inability to biodegrade and the gasses it releases when burned, it has grown to be a significant environmental problem. Waste made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) must therefore be recycled and used efficiently. The purpose of this study was to produce paver blocks by partially replacing sand with waste Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) material. Preparing the raw materials, mixing, vibrating, molding, curing, testing the flexural and compressive strengths, and curing are the steps in the production process. . The mixing proportion of paver blocks implemented for this study was 1:2:3, which is a predictable volume basis-mixing ratio of cement, aggregate, and sand correspondingly. Design-Expert 13.0.0 Three-level three factor Box–Behnken design was used for experimental design and statistical analysis of results based on the outcome and discussion. A total of 17 trials were carried out with the following parameters: 10, 20, and 30% of polyethylene terephthalate; 0.52, 0.55, and 0.58 as the water-to-cement ratio; and 7, 14, and 28 days for the curing period. The interaction effects were examined based on the examination of the experimental data. The physio-mechanical properties of Paver Blocks, including water absorption, compressive strength, and flexural strength, were examined. At a water-to-cement ratio of 0.55, obtained maximum flexural and compressive strength which is 4.92 MPa, and 29.74 MP respectively, and when PET plastic waste percentage increased, both flexural and compressive strength decreased but we got a good flexural and compressive strength value at 10% PET. And also water absorption rates were increased as PET plastic waste increased. The ideal process variables for polyethylene terephthalate percentage were 10 and 28. The paver blocks average and maximum water absorption rates were 3.39% and 3.95%, respectively. Compared to regular blocks, the resultant Paver Blocks are lighter and have superior physical and mechanical qualities. These are excellent illustrations of planned paver applications that can make use of prefabricated paver blocks.

The viability of using melted electronic waste (e-waste) plastic as a complete replacement for cement in the production of pavement blocks is examined in this study. The study compared the compressive strength, split tensile strength, water absorption, and heat resistance of pavement blocks made from e-waste plastic to those made from cement. The experimental procedure involved producing two different batches of pavement blocks. One batch used melted electronic waste (e-waste) as a binder, while the other used Portland cement at a ratio of 1:3. A total of 28 blocks were produced in each batch for the investigation. River sand was collected from a construction site near Windy’s Hostel at Windy Ridge in Takoradi. The particle size distribution of the sand used in this investigation was determined by a grading test procedure according to the British Standard method. In accordance with the British Standard method, the compressive strength test was done to determine the compressive strength of the pavement blocks. After 28 days of curing, the results of the compressive strength tests showed that the pavement blocks made from e-waste plastics achieved a compressive strength of 41.3 MPa, while the cement pavement blocks achieved a compressive strength of 39.2 MPa. The split tensile strength tests conducted after 28 days of curing revealed that the e-waste plastic pavement blocks achieved a tensile strength of 5.5 MPa, whilst the cement pavement blocks reported a tensile strength of 3.2 MPa. This suggests that the e-waste plastic pavement blocks are suitable for use in low-load-bearing applications. The study also revealed that e-waste plastic pavement blocks absorbed water at a rate of 0.46% whereas the cement pavement blocks absorbed water at a rate of 1.33% after 24 hours of full immersion. This demonstrates the resilience of e-waste plastic pavement blocks in wet conditions, reducing their susceptibility to degradation over time. Moreover, the heat resistance test conducted indicates that the e-waste plastic pavement blocks started to deform after 1 hour at a temperature of 150°C, whilst the cement pavement blocks showed no physical change up to 150°C. The findings of this research suggest that the melted e-waste plastic may be a viable alternative to cement in the production of pavement blocks for use in areas with a temperature of <140°C. Further research may be necessary to investigate the heat resistance of e-waste plastic pavement blocks for usage in a wider range of environmental conditions.