Abstract
The United Provinces of the Netherlands and the German Empire stood out in the seventeenth century as rare examples of federal forms of government in an age dominated by centralized monarchies and the doctrine of indivisible sovereignty created to legitimize the post-feudal state. In the United Provinces and the postWestphalian German Empire, Benedict Spinoza, Ludolph Hugo, and Gottfried von Leibniz were important theorists who articulated federal systems that were both challenged by, and simultaneously a challenge to, the prevailing conception of sovereignty.
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