Abstract
There is a close relationship between progress in learning and the error-monitoring system. EEG and fMRI studies using probabilistic learning have revealed the distinct dynamics of this system after response and feedback, i.e. an increase of error-related and a decrease of feedback-related activity in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Based on the existing theories, it can be presumed that during deterministic learning feedback-related activity in ACC would also increase. Since these assumptions have not yet been confirmed, it can be only speculated based on the data from the probabilistic paradigms how the information is being integrated within the ACC during deterministic learning. Here we implemented the Paired Associate Deterministic Learning task to the EEG and fMRI experiments. The analysis of EEG data showed a significant increase in the amplitude for both ERN and FN. Similarly, the fMRI results showed an increase in response-related and feedback-related activity of the ACC in erroneous trials. Our findings are in line with the current theories of ACC function: increasing ACC activity can be linked to the detected discrepancy between expected and obtained outcomes. We argue that expectancy violations in the course of deterministic learning are signalled by both, internal and external evaluation system.
Highlights
Learning is a process leading to relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of practice or experience
We showed that the Paired Associate Deterministic Learning task (PADL) accurately models the relationship between progress in learning and multiple performance measures we implement the PADL in EEG and fMRI experiments to evaluate the dynamics of error-monitoring system activity in terms of the error-related negativity (ERN) and feedback-related negativity (FN) components and the activity of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) over the process of deterministic learning
The dynamics of ERN and FN and the activity of the ACC has been associated with learning progress in a probabilistic environment[29,52,53]
Summary
Learning is a process leading to relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of practice or experience. The ACC has repeatedly been reported to be a source of generation of two event-related potentials (ERPs) observed in EEG recordings that are associated with error commission: error-related negativity (ERN) and feedback-related negativity (FN)[8,9,10]. ERN is considered a modality non-specific, generic part of the error-monitoring system which reflects internal evaluation of response correctness[13,14]. FN, the second of the potentials, is a negative-going ERP component which appears in EEG recordings 250–350 ms after external feedback about errors or losses is www.nature.com/scientificreports/. EEG studies show that probabilistic learning is associated with an inverse dynamic of change in ERN and FN amplitude over time, which reflects a shift between external and internal evaluation of the outcomes. The relatively high FN amplitude decreases with time due to the diminishing importance of the provided external evaluation of the response correctness[23]
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