Dual-level anomaly synthesis network for weak anomaly detection in liquid crystal displays

Previous article Next article Stability of Orientation Patterns of Liquid Crystals Subject to Magnetic FieldsConstantine M. DafermosConstantine M. Dafermoshttps://doi.org/10.1137/0116109PDFBibTexSections ToolsAdd to favoritesExport CitationTrack CitationsEmail SectionsAbout[1] F. C. Frank, On the theory of liquid crystals, Discussions Faraday Soc., 25 (1958), 19–28 10.1039/df9582500019 CrossrefGoogle Scholar[2] A. Saupe, Die Biegungselastizität der nematischen Phase von Azoxyanisol, Z. Naturforsch., 15a (1960), 815–822 Google Scholar[3] J. L. Ericksen, Continuum theory of liquid crystals, Appl. Mech. Rev., 20 (1967), 1029–1032 Google Scholar[4] Charles B. Morrey, Jr., Multiple integrals in the calculus of variations, Die Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften, Band 130, Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., New York, 1966ix+506 MR0202511 0142.38701 CrossrefGoogle Scholar[5] R. Courant and , D. Hilbert, Methods of mathematical physics. Vol. I, Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, N.Y., 1953xv+561 MR0065391 0053.02805 Google Scholar[6] W. F. Osgood, On the existence of a minimum of the integral $\int\sp {x\sb 1}\sb {x\sb 0}F(x,y,y')dx$ when $x\sb 0$ and $x\sb 1$ are conjugate points, and the geodesics on an ellipsoid of revolution: a revision of a theorem of Kneser's, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc., 2 (1901), 166–182 MR1500563 Google Scholar Previous article Next article FiguresRelatedReferencesCited ByDetails The Freedericksz transition as a bifurcation problemDynamics and Stability of Systems, Vol. 14, No. 3 | 1 Sep 1999 Cross Ref The effect of splay-bend elasticity on Freedericksz transitions in an annulusLiquid Crystals, Vol. 26, No. 5 | 1 May 1999 Cross Ref Weak-anchoring effects on a Freedericksz transition in an annulusLiquid Crystals, Vol. 19, No. 1 | 24 September 2006 Cross Ref InstabilitiesVariational Theories for Liquid Crystals | 1 Jan 1994 Cross Ref Response of a twisted nematic liquid crystal to any applied potentialLiquid Crystals, Vol. 4, No. 2 | 1 Feb 1989 Cross Ref Bénard convection in liquid crystalsLiquid Crystals, Vol. 4, No. 3 | 1 Jan 1989 Cross Ref On the Variation of the K 13 Nematic Surface-Like Volume Energy and the Nematic Surface Energy of MadaMolecular Crystals and Liquid Crystals, Vol. 148, No. 1 | 13 December 2006 Cross Ref Some Topics in Equilibrium Theory of Liquid CrystalsTheory and Applications of Liquid Crystals | 1 Jan 1987 Cross Ref Optical study of the molecular alignment in a nematic liquid crystal in an oblique magnetic fieldJournal de Physique, Vol. 45, No. 2 | 1 Jan 1984 Cross Ref Anisotropic FluidsTheories of Fluids with Microstructure | 1 Jan 1984 Cross Ref Some bifurcation problems in cholesteric liquid crystal theoryProceedings of the Edinburgh Mathematical Society, Vol. 26, No. 3 | 20 January 2009 Cross Ref Twofold orientations and hysteresis properties of nematic liquid crystals in strong magnetic fieldsJournal of Applied Physics, Vol. 50, No. 5 | 1 May 1979 Cross Ref Theoretical investigation of Freedericksz transitions in twisted nematics with surface tiltJournal of Physics A: Mathematical and General, Vol. 11, No. 7 | 18 January 2001 Cross Ref Polar flexoelectric deformations and second order elasticity in nematic liquid crystalsJournal de Physique, Vol. 38, No. 8 | 1 Jan 1977 Cross Ref Equilibrium Theory of Liquid CrystalsAdvances in Liquid Crystals | 1 Jan 1976 Cross Ref Physics of liquid crystalsReviews of Modern Physics, Vol. 46, No. 4 | 1 October 1974 Cross Ref Dependence of birefringence threshold voltage on dielectric anisotropy in a nematic liquid crystalJournal of Applied Physics, Vol. 45, No. 8 | 1 Aug 1974 Cross Ref Applications of microcontinuum fluid mechanicsInternational Journal of Engineering Science, Vol. 12, No. 4 | 1 Apr 1974 Cross Ref Interfacial effects in the magnetohydrostatic theory of nematic liquid crystalsJournal of Physics A: Mathematical, Nuclear and General, Vol. 6, No. 6 | 15 March 2001 Cross Ref Some Features of a Continuum Description of Disclination Lines in Nematic Liquid CrystalsMolecular Crystals and Liquid Crystals, Vol. 24, No. 3-4 | 21 March 2007 Cross Ref Distortion of Twisted Orientation Patterns in Liquid Crystals by Magnetic FieldsMolecular Crystals and Liquid Crystals, Vol. 12, No. 1 | 21 March 2007 Cross Ref Some magneto-hydrostatic effects in nematic liquid crystalsJournal of Physics D: Applied Physics, Vol. 3, No. 6 | 14 May 2002 Cross Ref Couette flow of a nematic liquid crystal in the presence of a magnetic fieldArchive for Rational Mechanics and Analysis, Vol. 37, No. 3 | 1 Jan 1970 Cross Ref Volume 16, Issue 6| 1968SIAM Journal on Applied Mathematics1123-1403 History Submitted:26 March 1968Published online:12 July 2006 InformationCopyright © 1968 Society for Industrial and Applied MathematicsPDF Download Article & Publication DataArticle DOI:10.1137/0116109Article page range:pp. 1305-1318ISSN (print):0036-1399ISSN (online):1095-712XPublisher:Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics

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Orientationally ordered soft matter is exceptionally responsive to a variety of excitations. That’s the basis for its great range of applications.

Vitamins are natural compounds which is important for biological reactions. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a water-soluble substance, while Vitamin E (tocopherol) is a soluble material in organic solvents. Further, antioxidant action can affect for metabolism in biological system. Vitamin E has three asymmetric centers in the molecular structure. In the liquid crystal technology, nematic liquid crystal is simple and high fluidity similar to isotopic liquid. Addition of small amount of chiral compounds to nematic liquid crystal can induce cholesteric liquid crystal. This is another chiral and helical version of nematic liquid crystal. In this study, we employed vitamin E as a chiral inducer to nematic liquid crystal for formation of helical liquid crystal system. Electrochemical polymerization is a convenient method for preparation of electroactive polymer deposited on an electrode in the form of thin film. Electrochemical polymerization in LC provides some interesting phenomena. First, electrochemical polymerization in liquid crystal allows the resultant to imprint morphology of molecular aggregation structure from molecular level to macroscopic level of liquid crystal. Second, electrochemical polymerization produces electroactive polymer with dynamically color change upon electrochemical redox process, which character can be applied for electrochemical driven display. Third, electrochemical charge and discharge provides voltaic storage function for the resultant polymer. Thus, electrochemical technique and polymer chemistry, such a brilliant combination produces electro-optic character. Recently, electrochemical polymerization in helical liquid crystal system has been performed. The electrochemical polymerization employs cholesteric liquid crystal as an electrolyte for polymerization. Cholesteric liquid crystal can be prepared by mix of nematic liquid crystal and chiral compounds. We employ synthetic compound as a chiral inducer. Here, we use vitamin E as chiral inducer to nematic liquid crystal preparation of cholesteric liquid crystal electrolyte solution for electrochemical polymerization. Observation of optical texture of the cholesteric liquid crystal electrolyte containing tetrabutylammonium perchlorate (TBAP) as a supporting salt showed fingerprint texture, which is characteristic of cholesteric liquid crystal.Next, electrochemical polymerization in cholesteric liquid crystal induced by vitamin E was carried out. We employed constant voltage electrochemical polymerization to ITO (indium–tin-oxide) coated glass slides were sandwiched via insulator tetrafluoroethylene as a spacer, and the choleretic liquid crystal electrolyte contained monomer (2,2′-bithiophene) was charged with pipette before application of voltage for electrochemical polymerization. The entire polymerization cell was heated to change the liquid crystal to isotropic phase. Then, gradually cooled to room temperature, and the isotopic phase was changed to cholesteric liquid crystal phase with iridescence. After confirming the electrolyte showed liquid crystal phase, constant voltage of 6 V across the sandwiched cell for 60 min was applied. Then, the polymerization cell was de-assembled and washed wish a large volume of organic solvent to remove the liquid crystal electrolyte solution, oligomer, and residual monomer. The polymer film thus prepared was deposited on cathode. This is quite interesting phenomena because electrochemical polymerization is generally occurred at the anode with oxidation. However, this result indicates that electrochemical polymerization in liquid crystal at cathode is possible. Cathodic electrochemical polymerization has been reported for dibromo aromatic compound or unsaturated aliphatic compounds. However, cathodic electrochemical polymerization of aromatic compounds with no halogen group has been few reported.The polymer shows electronic optical transition in visible range due to development of p-conjugated system and absorption at long wave lengths due to doping band accompany by generation on polaron (radical cation). The electrochemical character of the resultant polymer was examined using cyclic voltammetry (CV). The CV measurements were achieved in a monomer-free 0.1-M TBAP−acetonitrile solution at the scan rates of 10 mVs−1. The potential was calculated using a reference of silver/silver ion (Ag/Ag+) electrode. The oxidation and reduction signals are observed during the oxidation and reduction processes. The result showed the resultant polymer has good redox property. The resultant polymer shows no CD signal from short to long wavelengths, indicating no optical activity. However, the polymer shows the similar optical texture to that of liquid crystal electrolyte under the polarizing optical microscopy observations, implying the fingerprint texture of the polymer as macroscopic transcription of the liquid crystal structure may not contribute optical active property. Transcription from liquid crystal environment may not always occurs from molecular level to macroscopic level in the polymerization in liquid crystal. The polymer prepared in this study has no hierarchal structure from molecular level to the higher level, indicating macroscopic morphological imprinting in the polymerization is not essential condition for imprinting from the molecular level.

Electro-optical properties of nematic lyotropic chromonic liquid crystals

Liquid crystal (LC) devices for Photonics applications is a hot topic of research. Such elements begin to appear in Photonics market. Passive elements for fiber optical communication systems (DWDM components) based on LC cells can successfully compete with the other elements used for the purpose, such as micro electromechanical (MEM), thermo-optical, opto-mechanical or acousto-optical devices. Application of nematic and ferroelectric LC for high speed communication systems, producing elements that are extremely fast, stable, durable, of low loss, operable over a wide temperature range, and that require small operating voltages and extremely low power consumption. The known LC applications in fiber optics enable to produce switches, filters, attenuators, equalizers, polarization controllers, phase emulators and other fiber optical components. Good robustness due to the absence of moving parts and compatibility with VLSI technology, excellent parameters in a large photonic wavelength range, whereas the complexity of the design and the cost of the device are equivalent to regular passive matrix LC displays makes LC fiber optical devices very attractive for mass production. We have already successfully fabricated certain prototypes of the optical switches based on ferroelectric and nematic LC materials. The electrooptical modes used for the purpose included the light polarization rotation, voltage controllable diffraction and fast switching of the LC refractive index. We used the powerful software to optimize the LC modulation characteristics. Use of photo-alignment technique pioneered by us makes it possible to develop new LC fiber components. Almost all the criteria of perfect LC alignment are met in case of azo-dye layers. We have already used azo-dye materials to align LC in superthin photonic holes, curved and 3D surfaces and as cladding layers in microring silicon based resonators. The prototypes of new LC efficient Photonics devices are envisaged. Controllable photonic crystal / liquid crystal (PC/LC) devices became a "hot" topic of research. New PC/LC passive elements of fiber optical systems: electrically tunable LC photonic fibers, fiber optics tunable LC filters, tunable photonic crystal lasers are envisaged. A method for the formation of controllable PC/LC structures, based on photo-aligned LC is considered. Filling of the interstices of the photonic crystal with the photo-aligned LC material and subjecting the LC to a varying electric field can produce a tunable photonic crystal element. We have already used the photoaligning materials to align LC mixtures in small cavities, such as the holes and tubes of photonic crystals, having size of 1 μm and less and obtained excellent LC orientation inside the tubes by photoalignment.

We describe a four‐step process [solvent vapor treatment, liquid crystal formation, magnetic orientation, and crystallization (VLMC)] for producing oriented helical polyisocyanides with crystal‐like structure. We synthesized a series of ortho‐alkyl groups substituted with poly(phenyl isocyanide), and characterized the polymer structure using polarizing optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and X‐ray diffraction. The results demonstrated that the polymer has a crystal‐like structure and the sample forms cholesteric liquid crystal phase. Vapor treatment of polymer films under a magnetic field produced an aligned fiber structure at the submicron level and demonstrated magnetic alignment and formation of a solvent vapor‐induced polymer crystal. These results demonstrated formation of a polymer with a one‐handed helical structure, formation of a liquid crystal and polymer crystal via solvent vapor treatment, and magnetic alignment of a textile‐like polymer crystal domain.

Terahertz (THz) technology developed rapidly in recent years. Liquid crystals (LCs) are one of the most promising base materials to construct switchable devices in THz range because of their high optical anisotropies. However, the practical applications of the devices are hampered by the relationships between birefringence, thickness and LCs switching time. Due to the long wavelength, THz device requires a larger birefringence LC than the device operated at optical frequencies. Yet, in order to design an efficient switchable LC-THz device, it is crucial to find or synthetize LC material which will still display a useful birefringence at THz frequencies. The birefringence properties of LC are determined by the molecular polarizability of the relevant material. Knowledge of the LC molecular polarizability and its dependence on the molecular structure is important for designing LC molecules with desired THz properties. The prediction of the photoelectric characteristics could save a considerable quantity of the man-power and materials needed for the design or synthesis of new LC compounds. A priori screening of materials and the prediction of the optoelectronic properties would make a vast opportunity for expanding the LC material application scope. Hence, the main purpose of the present work is to provide a theoretical method of calculating and analyzing the THz polarizability properties of LC single compounds for LC-THz device applications. In this work, the frequency dependent molecule polarizability values of liquid crystal PCH5, 5CB and 5OCB in THz range are calculated by the density functional theory method. The geometries of the studied LCs are optimized at B3 LYP levels with the standard 6-311G(d) basis set. From the optimized geometries the molecule THz polarizabilities of LCs are calculated by the M06-2x functional with 6-311++G(2d, p) basis set, and they are found to be in good agreement with experimental data. By plotting the polarizability density analysis (PDA), the spatial contributions of electrons to the longitudinal polarizability are presented. The influences of alkyl chain and core structure on the microscopic polarizability of the LC molecule are investigated and explained by using the finite field approach and PDA. The results show that the unsaturated group, such as benzene ring or cyanobenzyl, makes great contribution to the polarizability of LC. In the design process, the new type of LC molecule must be extended the length of up electron conjugated system, to reduce the energy gap between HOMO and LUMO, and hence improving LC molecule polarizabilty. We hope that the present work could give a useful guide in screening or designing LC molecules for THz applications, and offer an effective way to understand fundamental optoelectronic characteristic of LC materials in the THz frequency range.

Polymer-poly(N-vinylcarbazole) (PVK) film-based liquid crystal (LC) devices have complex, but interesting properties, which include rubbing induced the LC alignment being perpendicular to the main chain of the polymer, thermal-induced deformation of polymer chains, phase separation, and so on. This study mainly focuses on these properties and their uses for fabricating LC devices. First, three radial LC devices have been developed according to the property of the rubbing direction being perpendicular to the LC director on a PVK film. Notably, the fabrication of these devices is easy, fast, and inexpensive. More importantly it is suitable for large-scale device fabrication. The performances of the devices have been examined in detail. The results indicate the radially aligned devices have high thermal stability, and exhibit no optical loss in the visible range. In addition, we can change the LC alignment by applying a voltage. Thus, the devices can be used to modulate the strength and polarization profile of a laser beam electrically. Our investigations indicate LCs aligned by a PVK film can be switched thermally. The selected LC determines the onset temperature required to switch the LC alignment. The cause of the switching is due to the thermally-induced micro-Brownian motion of the side chains of the polymer. Such a micro-Brownian motion of the side chains causes the reduction of the spontaneous polarization along the side chains, which aligns LC molecules. Finally, LCs align parallel to the polymer main-chain (rubbing direction) after being cooled to the room temperature. Because the required thermal energy of a LC with a higher clearing temperature (Tc) is higher than that with a lower Tc, we can choose the proper LCs to improve the thermal stability of the device. Based on these properties, we establish a thermal gradient to fabricate linear and concentric polarization rotators. The properties of both the polarization rotators have been examined in detail. The experimental results agree well with the simulated ones confirming that the LC alignment of the polarization rotators present a continual twist. Our investigations also verify that the PVK can be dissolved in an isotropic LC. Because of the specific process involved, we name such a method as a particular thermally induced phase separation (TIPS). The fabricated sample presents highly scattering and can be switched to the transparent state by applying a voltage. Thus, the device can be used as an electrically controllable LC light shutter, which possesses numerous good features, such as low driving voltage, fast response, independent of polarization, and high contrast ratio (~300:1). Finally, based on the surface morphologies of these substrates, we find that the cause of the scattering state is due to the rough surface inducing random alignments of the LCs. Finally, we find that the azo dye doped in a LC cell can be used to change the phase separation processes of the LCs and PVK films. Because of photo-induced thermal and photoisomerization effects resulting from the doped azo dye, the two effects can modulate the solubility and phase separation process between the DDLCs and PVK. Thus, we can control the scattering performance of the PVK film-based LC device with light intensity. Experimentally, it is found that the device can achieve several stable states with transmittance ranging from 0.1％ to 41.2％. Moreover, the particular TIPS mentioned above can be used to reverse the stable states back to the original scattering state. Thus, the mechanism can be applied for uses as optically controllable LC displays or other devices having features of low power consumption and multi-stability.

A phase diagram of a mixture consisting of nematic and smectic liquid crystals has been calculated self-consistently by combining Flory–Huggins (FH) theory for isotropic mixing and Maier–Saupe–McMillan (MSM) theory for smectic-A ordering. However, the MSM theory can be deduced to the original Maier–Saupe (MS) theory for nematic ordering. To describe the phase transitions involving induced smectic phase and nematic + smectic equilibrium, two nematic and two smectic order parameters for the nematic/smectic mixtures have been coupled through the normalized partition function and the orientation distribution function. Self-consistent numerical solution has been sought in establishing nematic/smectic phase diagrams involving (i) phase separation between nematic and smectic liquid crystals and (ii) occurrence of induced smectic in a nematic/smectic mixture. The predictive capability of this combined FH/MSM theory has been tested critically with a reported phase diagram of a nematic/smectic liquid-crystal mixture and also with our experimental phase diagram of a mixture consisting of a nematic side-on side-chain liquid-crystalline polymer and a smectic low molar mass liquid crystal.

A Bright Future for Liquid Functional Materials?

This chapter delves into laser-induced index or birefringence changes arising from changes in the order parameter, temperature, density, resulting in flows, director axis-reorientation, and lattice distortion. Throughout most of the discussions, the anisotropy of liquid crystalline parameters such as dielectric constant, refractive indices, conductivity, viscosity coefficients are ignored for simplicity in illustrating the role played by these parameters. Such treatment is acceptable if the liquid crystal is in the isotropic liquid phase, or, in the case of cholesteric liquid crystals and blue-phase liquid crystals outside their photonic bandgaps. By virtue of nematic constituent makeup of cholesteric and blue-phase liquid photonic crystals, they are also highly nonlinear optical materials, endowed with ultrafast individual molecular electronic nonlinearity as well as crystalline non-electronic nonlinearities arising from laser-induced electrostriction, thermal-, density- and order parameter changes, lattice distortion accompanied by director axis reorientation and flow.

Here we report the use of unique organic−inorganic hybrid materials composed of octa-substituted polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS) cores as ionic liquid (IL) crystals. These materials have a wide temperature range in which they exist in liquid crystal (LC) phase because of the stabilizing effect of the POSS core. We synthesized ion pairs composed of alkyl chain-substituted imidazolium and carboxylates of various lengths that were or were not connected to the POSS core; then the thermal properties of these materials were investigated. It was found that both ion salts and the octadecyl-substituted imidazolium ion pairs with or without connection to POSS could form LCs. Interestingly, the LC phase of the POSS-tethered ion salts was maintained until decomposition. In contrast, the octadecyl-substituted imidazolium ion salts that were not tethered to the POSS core showed a clearance point during heating. The highly symmetric structure of POSS contributes not only to the suppression of the molecular motion of the ion salts, but also results in the formation of regular structures, leading to thermally stable, thermotropic IL crystals. Ionic liquid crystals (ILCs) with intriguing thermal properties can now reach practical working temperatures using siloxane cubes. ILCs are promising as optical materials and platforms for chemical templating, but their thermal stability remains problematic. Now, Kazuo Tanaka, Yoshiki Chujo and co-workers from Kyoto University in Japan present a new concept for overcoming this problem that involves using polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS), a silicon–oxygen compound with a rigid cubic nanostructure. On tethering ion pairs to POSS, the researchers observed a simultaneous reduction in melting temperature and enhacement in thermal stability — evidence that POSS isolates the ion pairs during melting and reduces molecular motions that destabilize the liquid crystal phase. Introduction of POSS produced an ILC stable from 24 °C to 163 °C, a seven times larger working temperature range than that of non-POSS stabilized ILCs. The thermotropic ionic liquid crystal with the wide temperature range of the liquid crystal phase is reported using polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane. We found the liquid crystal phase of the POSS-tethered ion salts can be maintained until the pyrolysis occurs.

New functions of polymer film can be developed by using template. We synthesized polypyrrole (PPy) as a conducting polymer in liquid crystal electrolyte solution. The liquid crystal electrolyte solution for the electrochemical polymerization contains monomer, electrolyte, and matrix liquid crystal. The electrochemical polymerization in liquid crystal was simply performed by using sandwich cell electrochemical polymerization method, which we have originally developed. Application of constant voltage between the two electrodes produces a solid polymer film at anode side through electrochemical oxidation polymerization process. Polarizing optical microscopy observation revealed that the polymer film thus obtained show beautiful optical texture like liquid crystal. The surface texture was derived from molecular structure transcription from the liquid crystal electrolyte solution. The transcription is occurred from molecular level to macroscopic level. Infrared absorption spectroscopy measurements, UV-Vis absorption measurements confirm that the polymer film is exactly pi-conjugated film, although the optical structure is very similar to that of liquid crystal. Furthermore, the polymer film can be tuned its color via electrochemical redox reaction (doping-dedoping). Therefore, the polymer has both liquid crystal order and electro-active property. Lyotropic liquid crystals have good affinity with water, and form crystal like aggregation structure via a self-assembly. Lyotropic liquid crystal shows variety in liquid crystal type, such as columnar phase, smectic phase, nematic phase, and cholesteric phase. In this research, we employed lyotropic liquid crystals for electrolyte solution. Columnar liquid crystals have paid attention as an electrical conduction materials having good carrier mobility. Therefore, the polymer thus prepared can be expected to show structure based unique electrical conduction function through columnar form produced by the transcription from the liquid crystal electrolyte solution in the electrochemical polymerization. Cholesteric liquid crystals show chiral aggregation form. The polymer prepared in cholesteric liquid crystal shows fingerprint texture under the observation of polarizing optical microscope, and optical rotation and circular dichroism. The optical rotation angle can be controlled with electrochemical redox reaction. In this presentation, we report, 1) Preparation of liquid crystal electrolyte solution and characterization 2) Electrochemical polymerization 3) Spectroelectrochemistry. This research can be involved molecularly imprinting (MIP) [3,4]. We discuss the method of electrochemical polymerization, functions, and future prospective of the polymer films prepared in liquid crystals based on electrochemistry.

In this paper we propose a new approach to fiber optic voltage sensors via voltage-controlled Liquid Crystals (LC), which would allow direct measurement of up to 400 kV/m electric fields at multiple points. In addition, the electro-optical behavior of deformed helix ferroelectric (DHF) liquid crystal in reflective mode is described and tested. The electrically controlled reflectance has been measured at sub-kilohertz driving voltage frequency for different polarizations of the incident light. Full Text: PDF References Y.V. Izdebskaya, V.G. Shvedov, A.S. Desyatnikov, W. Krolikowski and Y.S. Kivshar, "Soliton bending and routing induced by interaction with curved surfaces in nematic liquid crystals", Opt. Lett. 35, 1692-1694 (2010). CrossRef Z. Ge, S. Gauza, M. Jiao, H. Xianyu and S.T. Wu, "Electro-optics of polymer-stabilized blue phase liquid crystal displays", Appl. Phys. Lett. 94, 101104 (2009). CrossRef Z. Brodzeli, F. Ladouceur, L. Silvestri, A. Michie, V. Chigrinov, G. Q. Guo, E. P. Pozhidaev and A. D. Kiselev, "Liquid crystal-based hydrophone arrays", APOS (2012). CrossRef T. Tanigawa, Y. Sakakibara, S. Fang, T. Sekikawa and M. Yamashita, "Spatial light modulator of 648 pixels with liquid crystal transparent from ultraviolet to near-infrared and its chirp compensation application", Opt. Lett. 34, 1696-1698 (2009). CrossRef K. H. Yang and T. C. Chieu, "Transport Properties of Ions in Ferroelectric Liquid Crystal Cells", Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 28, 2240-2246 (1989) CrossRef I.C. Khoo and S.T. Wu, "Optics and Nonlinear Optics of Liquid Crystals", World Scientific, Singapore (1993). V.G. Chigrinov, "Liquid Crystal Devices: Physics and Applications", Artech House, Boston: London, (1999). A.D. Kiselev, E.P. Pozhidaev, V.G. Chigrinov and H.S. Kwok, "Polarization-gratings approach to deformed-helix ferroelectric liquid crystals with subwavelength pitch", Phys. Rev. E 83, 31703 (2011). CrossRef N. A. Clark and S. T. Lagerwall, "Submicrosecond bistable electro-optic switching in liquid crystals", Appl. Phys. Lett. 36, 899-901 (1980). CrossRef L.A. Beresnev, V.G. Chigrinov, D.I. Dergachev, E.P. Pozhidaev, J. Funfshilling and M. Schadt, "Deformed helix ferroelectric liquid crystal display: A new electrooptic mode in ferroelectric chiral smectic C liquid crystals", Liq. Cryst. 5, 1171-1177 (1989). CrossRef Z. Brodzeli, H.K. Bal, V.G. Chigrinov, A. Murauski, and F. Ladouceur, "Electrical energy harvesting device for current/voltage fibre-based sensors", Optical Fibre Technology (ACOFT), 2010 35th Australian Conference on Fibre Technology, 1-2, (2010). DirectLink X. Zhao, F. Boussaid, A. Bermak and V.G. Chigrinov, "High-resolution thin ?guest-host? micropolarizer arrays for visible imaging polarimetry", Opt. Exp. 19, 5565-5573 (2011). CrossRef X.H. Li, A. Murauski, A. Muravsky, P.Z. Xu, H.L. Cheung, and V. Chigrinov, "Grayscale Generation and Stabilization in Ferroelectric Liquid Crystal Display," J. Display Technol. 3, 273-279 (2007). CrossRef E.P. Pozhidaev, S. Torgova, M. Minchenko, C. Yednak, A. Strigazzi and E. Miraldi, "Phase modulation and ellipticity of the light transmitted through a smectic C* layer with short helix pitch", Liq. Cryst. 37, 1067-1081, (2010). CrossRef E.P. Pozhidaev and V.G. Chigrinov, "Bistable and multistable states in ferroelectric liquid crystals", Crystallography Reports. 51, 1030-1040 (2006). CrossRef Q. Guo, F. Fan, T. Du, and V.G. Chigrinov, "Electrooptic Response of FLC: Effect of Alignment Materials", SID'11 Conference, P-144, Los Angeles, USA, May, (2011). CrossRef G. Hegde, P. Xu, E.P. Pozhidaev, V.G. Chigrinov, and H.S. Kwok, "Electrically controlled birefringence colours in deformed helix ferroelectric liquid crystals", Liq. Cryst. 35, 1137-1144 (2008). CrossRef