Dual language immersion programs and their neighborhoods: Issues of program access and representation within Los Angeles Unified School District

Dual language immersion (DLI) programs have emerged in the U.S. as effective ways to bring together language minority and language majority speakers in school settings with the goal of bilingualism and bi-literacy for all. However, the proliferation of these programs has raised concerns regarding issues of inequity and dissimilar power dynamics in these spaces (Cervantes-Soon, 2014, “A Critical Look at Dual Language Immersion in the New Latin@ Diaspora.” Bilingual Research Journal 37 (1): 64–82; Flores, 2016, Do Black Lives matter in Bilingual Education [Web log post]. Accessed May 1, 2017. https://educationallinguist.wordpress.com/2016/09/11/do-black-lives-matter-in-bilingual-education/; Valdes, 1997, “Dual language immersion programs: A cautionary note concerning the education of language-minority students.” Harvard Educational Review 67: 391–430, 2018, “Analyzing the curricularization of language in two-way immersion education: Restating two cautionary notes.” Bilingual Research Journal). With this in mind, this study aims to shed light on the intricate social processes at work in DLI contexts. In particular, this paper examines first, how notions of language use, race, and ethnicity are socially constructed and intersect in DLI settings; and second, it explores how these ideas are discerned and re-shaped by young children into their own social and linguistic norms. Employing qualitative research methods, this year-long ethnographic case study uses the intersectional lens of raciolinguistics (Alim, Rickford & Ball, 2016, Raciolinguistics: how language shapes our ideas about race. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; Rosa & Flores, 2017, “Unsettling race and language: Toward a raciolinguistic perspective.” Language in Society 46 (5): 621–647), to examine the intricate cross-cutting dynamics at play in bilingual spaces. The exploration of these ideas helps to illuminate the ways in which language practices and interactions are shaped by social constructions from a very early age. Furthermore, it contributes to understandings of social perceptions and relations in multilingual/multicultural/multiethnic contemporary school settings.

Mandarin-English dual language immersion (ME-DLI) programs have been growing rapidly in recent decades. Most dual language immersion programs are not mandated by the school or district but are initiated based on parents’ demands. To better understand the need for ME-DLI programs, this study explored factors associated with ethnic Chinese parents’ decisions to enroll their children in ME-DLI programs. We collected 235 parents’ survey responses. Participants were divided into six groups based on their enrollment status when ME-DLI programs were available (currently enrolled; currently enrolled in other Mandarin language programs; not currently enrolled) and willingness to enroll when unavailable (willing to enroll; may be willing to enroll; not willing to enroll). Results revealed that parents with positive attitudes toward bilingualism were more likely to enroll or willing to enroll in ME-DLI programs, suggesting a strong connection between parents’ attitudes and their enrollment decisions. Parents in the currently enrolled group also reported higher levels of English reading frequency and more advanced bilingual skills in their children than the not currently enrolled group. However, when ME-DLI programs were unavailable, parents who reported higher child engagement in English reading were less willing to enroll in ME-DLI programs.

Aims: The current study seeks to better understand the effects of input quantity, input quality, and output on the French vocabulary development of early-elementary school students attending a French–English dual language immersion (DLI) program in the United States. Design: The participants were 42 early-elementary students attending a French–English DLI program, who participated in a longitudinal study. At the beginning of the study, they experienced variability in out-of-school French input and output. Data and analysis: Data on out-of-school French input and output came from parents’ responses on a survey. Children’s French receptive vocabulary was measured using their scores on the Échelle de Vocabulaire en Images Peabody, while their French expressive vocabulary was measured using the number of different words employed on a picture description task. Their vocabulary skills were assessed over one year, and data from the five time points were used to fit a longitudinal growth model. Findings: Students who were exposed to more French input had higher scores on the French receptive vocabulary measure at baseline, whereas those who produced more French output had higher scores on the French expressive vocabulary measure at baseline. Maternal French proficiency had no significant effect on French receptive and expressive vocabulary scores at baseline. Originality: Few previous studies, if any, have analyzed the associations between input, output, and vocabulary development in the DLI context; that is, the extent to which children’s vocabulary trajectories in the partner language are affected by their out-of-school input and output experiences. Implications: Bilingual programs ought to emphasize both input and output in the target language given their unique contribution to children’s receptive and expressive language skills. Also, future research on bilingual vocabulary development should examine input and output in both languages.

This paper presents evidence of the effects of dual language immersion (DLI) programs on the academic outcomes of students in elementary grades. Leveraging enrollment lotteries from four cohorts of DLI applicants across 10 oversubscribed programs, analyses estimate the intent-to-treat effect of access to bilingual education on reading and math test scores. On average, native English-speaking students in Grades 1 through 4 who win access to a DLI program score higher in reading and math by 0.12 and 0.14 SDs, respectively. The achievement gains in test scores are realized as early as first grade.

Dual language immersion (DLI) programs are gaining traction in California as a solution to serve English learners and prepare students for a globalized world. Successful implementation of DLI programs requires educational leaders, particularly principals, to embrace a shared, asset-oriented vision. This chapter explores the attributes of effective DLI principals and key considerations for leadership teams during the planning and implementation phases. Drawing on two qualitative studies, this chapter examines the distinct traits of principals in DLI programs, and the essential steps needed to ensure bilingualism for both English learners and native English speakers. Effective DLI principals demonstrate a commitment to multilingualism, advocate for students from diverse backgrounds, and exhibit the courage to lead transformational change. Successful program implementation depends on ongoing planning and active community engagement. The chapter concludes that strong leadership in DLI programs is critical for closing achievement gaps and ensuring equitable outcomes for all students.

Learning to read in a second language (L2) poses unique challenges for emergent bilingual (EB) children. This study examines whether Spanish-English EB children's vocabulary skills in Spanish and English mediate the relationship between their language input-output and English (L2) reading skills. The sample included 338 Latina/o EB children in first and third grades enrolled in dual-language immersion (DLI) programs in the United States. Results from the multivariate regression model revealed differences in language input-output at home, with third graders reported using more English than first graders. However, no grade-level differences were observed in language input-output at school in both languages, underscoring the important role of DLI programs in maintaining EB children's first language (L1). The findings also revealed the robust contributions of both L1 and L2 input-output to English vocabulary, which was positively associated with advanced English reading outcomes. When examining the indirect effects, EB children's English use at home and Spanish use at school significantly predicted their English reading outcomes through their advanced English vocabulary skills. These findings demonstrated the additive role of home language use in supporting L2 reading development. The results also underscore the importance of fostering EBs’ vocabulary in both languages to enhance their English reading.

In this paper, we address a lack of assessments of partner language development in dual language immersion (DLI) programs. We propose several important considerations that are necessary for the creation of research-based assessments of partner language development in DLI programs, focusing on Spanish as an example. We first discuss what these assessments need to test, concentrating on different areas of language that have proven to be challenging for heritage speakers and second language learners of Spanish, both of whom are students in these immersion programs. Next, we discuss how to assess these students through the use of implicit and explicit tasks and by measuring production and comprehension separately. We also advocate for embracing students’ translanguaging practices. Finally, we discuss why we need to assess partner language development. We propose that designing assessments that are simple to interpret will allow teachers, linguists, and policymakers to benefit from the data that they provide. For example, assessments of partner language development can contribute to assessment literacy and the creation of learning standards for bilingual schools. We argue that these considerations are essential for bringing DLI education to where we ought to be in the 21st century.

This chapter compares and contrasts the curriculum, pedagogy, instructional materials, and extracurricular activities in a community-based CHL school and a Chinese-English DLI program in a southeast state of the US to discern how each is promoting Chinese immigrant children's heritage language and cultural learning. The author also explored how each school was supported by the local community. The result of this study indicates that the curriculum of the community-based CHL school was more focusing on teaching heritage culture as well as the reading and writing of Chinese words. In the Chinese-English DLI program, its cultural study curriculum in the social studies classes was more focused on the US citizenship education. However, in the social studies classes, teachers in the DLI program were able to integrate more Chinese literacy learning activities into the subject content instruction.

This chapter compares and contrasts the curriculum, pedagogy, instructional materials, and extracurricular activities in a community-based CHL school and a Chinese-English DLI program in a southeast state of the US to discern how each is promoting Chinese immigrant children's heritage language and cultural learning. The author also explored how each school was supported by the local community. The result of this study indicates that the curriculum of the community-based CHL school was more focusing on teaching heritage culture as well as the reading and writing of Chinese words. In the Chinese-English DLI program, its cultural study curriculum in the social studies classes was more focused on the US citizenship education. However, in the social studies classes, teachers in the DLI program were able to integrate more Chinese literacy learning activities into the subject content instruction.

The benefits of dual language immersion (DLI) instruction, both in one-way and two-way immersion programs, have been widely documented through empirical studies spanning nearly five decades. In the U.S. context, most research to date on DLI education has been based on Spanish/English programs, which offer instruction in two Indo-European languages that share many typologically similar features. In light of the fact that there has been a growing trend in programs of other language combinations, such as Mandarin and English, it is necessary to understand how different partner language combinations in DLI programs may impact students’ learning outcomes. Thus, by surveying research on Korean/English and Mandarin/English DLI programs, this paper examines how DLI programs that operate in languages with significantly different linguistic typologies and different scripts affect students’ academic achievement and their development of bilingual proficiency. Based on the studies reviewed, areas for further research to advance our understanding of how DLI programs in English and Korean or Mandarin can effectively and efficiently develop students’ bilingualism/biliteracy and academic achievement are proposed.

A first-year middle school science teacher's experiences navigating science content in a Dual Language Immersion Program

PreK–5 Foreign Language Programs:No Longer an Endangered Species? Mary Jo Adams Keywords early language learning/aprendizaje de idiomas en escuela primaria, FLES, FLEX, immersion/imersión, teaching and learning/enseñaza y aprendizaje Challenges facing foreign language instruction in the United States are particularly acute in preK–5 programs. However, the rise of dual language immersion programs in this country represents a bright light in regard to elementary foreign language instruction. Dual language programs are being added and expanded across the country at a quick pace. Two years ago, the New York Times reported, "40 dual-language programs for elementary, middle, and high school levels would be created or expanded for the 2015–16 school year" (Harris 2015). In North Carolina, over the past ten years the number of dual-language and immersion programs has grown from programs at seven schools to over 100 programs, many of which start in Kindergarten (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction). Maryland's Howard County Public School System is leading the way in their state by significantly increasing their K–12 language offerings. The state of Utah boasts 138 schools offering dual language immersion programs, 106 of which are in elementary schools (Utah State Board of Education). Despite the growth of these programs, there are very few teacher-training programs that exist to prepare such teachers. With the rapid expansion of dual immersion programs, our profession may be faced with a teacher shortage. Dual immersion and elementary foreign language education require unique skills. Teacher training programs are critical to ensure sound, developmentally appropriate pedagogy. According to the Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL) report from 2009, "More than one quarter of all elementary school foreign language teachers are not certified at all. The percentage of elementary schools that reported having uncertified language teachers increased from 17% in 1997 to 31% in 2008" (Rhodes and Pufahl 2009: 4). More than ever, teacher training and certification programs will need to be accessible and affordable for new teachers entering the profession and for those that need additional training in order to be qualified to teach in dual immersion programs. A 2011 report on the effect of quality teachers on student achievement concluded, "The year-long and cumulative effects on student achievement of having a qualified teacher can be measured and have been found to be substantial" (Hightower et al. 2011). A Call for Research The need for strong elementary school foreign language programs must be made evident. However, these programs are expensive. To convince parents, school districts, and taxpayers of their value, strong evidence must be provided of their value. In a recent article by Kissau, Adams, and Algozzine (2015), [End Page 163] the researchers call for further research to support early language programs. Research on the motivational and proficiency related benefits of beginning language at an early age must be a priority. There is very little research conducted in the United States on the benefits of learning a language starting at a young age, yet there are plenty of excellent FLEX, FLES, and immersion programs that could offer valuable data and insight to proficiency outcomes in relation to early start programs. A Call for Excellence Public and private schools that offer early language programs (e.g., FLEX, FLES, immersion) need to be models and advocates for early language education. Many elementary school language teachers are responsible for developing curriculum and may not have the resources, training, or funding to guide their efforts in order to ensure program excellence. Therefore, teachers in early language programs must become professionally active in national and state foreign language associations such as the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL), the National Network for Early Language Learning (NNELL), their respective language association, such as the American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese (AATSP), and state organizations such as the Foreign Language Association of North Carolina (FLANC). If we desire a globally competent United States population, we must raise our students starting at a very young age to be so. We know that advocacy efforts have been in full force for decades, and are shown to be effective and therefore, must continue. Important advocacy events, such as Language...

Few studies have investigated the developing grammars of school-aged children acquiring Spanish as a heritage or second language (L2) in dual language immersion programs. The present project evaluated 57 English-dominant Spanish heritage speakers (HS) and L2 learners enrolled in a dual language immersion school on their production and recognition of subjunctive mood in volitional clauses. Older children (12–14 year olds) produced more subjunctive mood and selected it more frequently on a forced choice task than younger participants (9–11 year-olds). Specifically, the older HSs produced and selected more subjunctive than age-matched L2 learners. However, HSs’ earlier age of acquisition of Spanish provided this group with a modest advantage over L2 learners in their command of subjunctive across tasks. Participants were more likely to produce and select subjunctive mood with irregular verbs. Finally, participants were more likely to select the subjunctive than to produce it. Implications for bilingualism theory and pedagogy in dual language immersion programs are discussed.

This study concerns integration in a two-way dual language immersion (DLI) context. Specifically, the present study examines parents of students in Korean-English DLI programs with the intent to understand the extent of their satisfaction with their child’s ability to get along with children of different cultures and languages. This study also examines parental views on integration among parents themselves. Using the survey data collected from over 450 parents in seven elementary schools in southern California, this quantitative study also investigates to what degree the variables of integration among children and among parents are associated with other parental demographic characteristics and parental experiences in their child’s DLI program. Based on the study findings, this study argues that integration in DLI must be a school-wide commitment and not simply a program’s goal. Moreover, to achieve integration in DLI, all stakeholders of the program need to be considered, including students, educators, and families of students in the school. This study also highlights the need to diversify discussions regarding DLI programs in terms of target languages, program types, and school locations.

Translanguaging pedagogy has gained wide recognition in the field of education as an effective approach to educate emerging bilinguals. This study examines how bilingual teachers understand and adopt this approach in Mandarin/English dual language immersion programs. Four elementary school teachers employed at three different Mandarin/English dual language immersion programs in California were interviewed in-depth about their perspectives on the use of translanguaging pedagogy and their translanguaging stance in their instruction. Guided by the constructs in the Translanguaging Allocation Policy model (Sánchez et al., 2018), the analysis revealed that teachers held an incomplete understanding of translanguaging pedagogy, largely due to a lack of understanding of the theoretical basis upon which translanguaging practices are built in varying teaching contexts. Thus, the teachers mostly resorted to translations as one of their main translanguaging pedagogical practices and saw it as a means to bridge understanding across two languages. In order to support the accessibility of translanguaging pedagogy to a broader range of practitioners, recommendations for professional development and teacher training as well as suggestions for the Translanguaging Allocation Policy model (Sánchez et al., 2018) are provided.