Drivers and Dynamics of Illegal Migration from Pakistan to Europe Post-2020

In Ethiopia, where there is high prevalence of migration to the Middle East and Europe, a multitude of studies have focused on the relationships between the role of smugglers, push and pull factors, and illegal migration. However, only a fraction of studies have examined the context from the individual and collective mind-set perspective. The process of the decision to migrate may be influenced by individuals’ beliefs about illegal migration. This study examined the attitudes, levels of readiness and risk perceptions of potential and returnee migrants towards illegal migration to the Middle East. Survey data were collected from 1,726 Ethiopian returnee (n=991) and potential migrants (n=735). Results indicated that here was a significant difference between potential and returnee migrants in holding a positive attitude towards unsafe and illegal migration, t (1260) =-8.474, p=0.000.

Natural and technological disasters have a significant impact on unemployment in Pakistan and are an important factor in economic instability. Pakistan's economy is now going through a critical phase of instability. The current government has to deal with a number of economic and social challenges, such the high unemployment rate. The study hypothesizes that the number of deaths and the number of people affected by disasters have a significant impact on the unemployment rate, and this impact has a lag. The study examines Pakistan's economic statistics, focusing on its instability over the past 30 years. It uses Stata software for regression equations to examine unemployment rate, inflation, price index changes, technological disaster deaths, and natural disaster impact. The study reveals that the number of deaths from natural and technological disasters has an important positive impact on unemployment rates, suggesting that economic repercussions of such disasters may emerge after initial response phases. The authors failed to examine the impact of recent events on the labor market due to inaccessible data, a gap that could have been significant. This study pioneers an investigation into the effect of the influence of natural and technological disasters on unemployment. It fills a gap in research of the impact of disasters on unemployment rates in disaster economics and labor economics and emphasizes the lag of disaster impacts. It provides a scientific basis for the government and relevant agencies in formulating post-disaster reconstruction and employment policies and recommends strengthening disaster prevention and infrastructure construction to reduce the long-term negative impact of disasters on the economy.

The Mexican economy experienced three major economic events during the last decade. First, the implementation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) starting on January 1, 1994, was a major milestone in the opening of the Mexican economy. Second, Mexico suffered its worst economic crisis since the Great Depression in late 1994 and throughout 1995. Third, the U.S. recession beginning in late 2000 resulted in a major decline in Mexican manufacturing employment, particularly in the maquiladora industry, where more than 200,000 jobs were lost between 2000 and 2002 (INEGI 2004). In addition, several major political events occurred during the last decade. On the same day NAFTA came into effect, there was open rebellion in the state of Chiapas. Also in 1994, Mexico's presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio was assassinated in Tijuana in March. Later that year, in September, Mexico's attorney general was assassinated. Mexico selected Vicente Fox as its president in 2000. Fox was the first Mexican president since 1928 who did not belong to the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI). Fox promised substantial economic and political reforms. In brief, Mexico experienced considerable economic and political instability during the last decade. Changes in income distribution often occur slowly over long periods of time, but periods of significant instability may result in distributional effects during the short run. Mexico's political and economic instability during the last decade could be expected to affect its distribution of income in some obvious and not so obvious ways. In this paper, we address three specific questions regarding income distribution in Mexico. First, in what ways, if any, did the distribution of total money income in Mexico change during this turbulent decade? Second, did Mexico's income distribution in urban and rural

The Economy and Suicide.

Following the 2011 revolution, Tunisia has grappled with a significant challenge posed by illegal migration, a complex issue shaped by an interplay of economic, political, and regional dynamics. High unemployment rates and limited economic opportunities compel many Tunisians to seek better prospects abroad, often resorting to irregular migration channels. Even more, political instability and conflicts in neighbouring regions have exacerbated this situation, acting as a push factor that propels individuals to seek refuge beyond their homeland. The resultant surge in undocumented migrants has transformed the country into a transit hub. This upsurge not only strains Tunisia’s limited resources but also brings about social and economic consequences, impacting public services and intensifying competition in the job market. Effectively addressing this issue demands a comprehensive approach, necessitating reforms in economic policies, legal frameworks, and international collaboration. This policy brief advocates for a holistic approach, integrating domestic initiatives with international cooperation to confront the intricate challenge of illegal migration in Tunisia.

Purpose- In regions with high unemployment rates, individuals often face economic uncertainty and may seek alternatives to traditional financial systems. In such circumstances, some individuals may turn to alternative investments and financial instruments, with cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin being among them. The value of these cryptocurrencies is often volatile due to their speculative nature, which can lead investors to take on more significant risks. While this situation can result in substantial gains, it can also lead to significant financial losses. The primary use of cryptocurrencies is generally for investment purposes. Since cryptocurrencies are digital, they operate entirely in a virtual environment. The loss or theft of the digital password in the virtual space means the loss of the wallet. Security in cryptocurrencies is very weak. The lack of government guarantees and legal infrastructure globally poses certain threats to investors, making cryptocurrencies carry a higher risk compared to other investment instruments. This study will investigate the regional relationship between cryptocurrency interest and unemployment rates. The aim is to determine whether individuals living in geographical areas with high unemployment rates show more interest in cryptocurrencies compared to those in other geographical regions. Methodology- In line with the research objective, Google search engine data for the past 10 years has been analyzed using content analysis methodology. A query has been conducted to determine in which regions of Turkey cryptocurrency names are most frequently searched, and a comparison has been made on a provincial level across all 81 provinces. Additionally, considering the unemployment data provided by the Turkish Statistical Institute (TUIK), regions with high and low unemployment rates have been identified. Subsequently, an investigation has been carried out to determine whether there is any correlation between regional Google searches and unemployment rates in these areas. Findings- When examining the findings from the perspective of unemployment, it has been observed that the regions where cryptocurrency names are most frequently searched align with areas having the highest unemployment rates, while the least searched areas correspond to regions with lower unemployment rates. Among the 10 provinces with the highest unemployment rates, 8 of them are included in the list of 10 provinces with the highest Bitcoin search frequency. Similarly, 8 out of 10 provinces with the lowest employment rates are also listed among the 10 provinces with the highest Bitcoin search frequency. Furthermore, among the 10 provinces with the lowest per capita gross domestic product (GDP), 7 of them are included in the list of 10 provinces with the highest Bitcoin search frequency. Conclusion- As a result of the relationship analyses conducted in the research, it has been observed that in Turkey, regions with high unemployment rates, low employment rates, and low Gross Domestic Product (GDP) have a higher frequency of Bitcoin searches compared to other regions. Keywords: Cryptocurrency, unemployment, bitcoin JEL Codes: P44, E24, E44

This paper provides an empirical appraisal of the influence ofpolitics on the evolution of unemployment rates in 13industrialized democracies (12 European Union countries andthe U.S.) from 1960 to 1999. We conduct new tests ofopportunistic and partisan business cycle models, using richerdata and more general specifications than previous studies. Incontrast to most previous studies, we pay particular attentionto the importance of labor market structure in conditioningthe influence of politics on unemployment. We also investigatethe relationship between political stability and economicstability. The results suggest the existence of partisan effects, withhigher unemployment rates prevailing under ``right'' partiesthan ``left'' parties. There is more support for ``rational''partisan models that embody transient partisan impacts thanfor models with permanent effects. We find evidence that unionpower is associated with higher average unemployment rates,but that centralized bargaining institutions tend to lowerunemployment rates. The evidence also suggests that morefragmented coalition governments are associated with higherunemployment rates than single party governments.

Self-medication with leftover antibiotics (LA) is a global health crisis, particularly in contexts of economic and political instability. This study examines the social determinants of health (SDOH) influencing LA use among Lebanese households, focusing on how individuals are born, grow, live, and work. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 368 Lebanese adults to collect data on socio-demographic characteristics, self-medication practices related to LA, and key SDOH such as socioeconomic status (SES), perceived discrimination in medical settings (DMS), political and economic instability, drug shortages, and trusted sources of health information. Data were analyzed using bivariate tests and multivariable logistic regression. Bivariate analysis showed that LA use was significantly associated with male gender (45.0% vs. 33.3%, p = 0.024), lower educational levels (58.7% vs. 35.1%, p = 0.002), presence of chronic disease (54.7% vs. 32.2%, p < 0.001), older age (p = 0.028), and a higher household crowding index (p = 0.018). LA use was also more prevalent among participants impacted by political instability, economic crisis, and drug shortages (all p < 0.001). In multivariable logistic regression, chronic disease (OR = 2.711, p = 0.002), economic crisis (OR = 2.013, p < 0.001), and prior experience with the same illness (OR = 4.085, p < 0.001) were identified as significant predictors for LA use. These findings show the critical role of socio-economic instability, healthcare access challenges, and experiential factors as key SDOH driving LA practices. The study highlights the urgent need for multi-sectoral interventions addressing economic hardship, improving healthcare access, and enhancing public awareness to mitigate LA misuse and its contribution to antimicrobial resistance in Lebanon.

BackgroundSelf-medication with leftover antibiotics (LA) is a global health crisis, particularly in contexts of economic and political instability. This study examines the social determinants of health (SDOH) influencing LA use among Lebanese households, focusing on how individuals are born, grow, live, and work.MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted among 368 Lebanese adults to collect data on socio-demographic characteristics, self-medication practices related to LA, and key SDOH such as socioeconomic status (SES), perceived discrimination in medical settings (DMS), political and economic instability, drug shortages, and trusted sources of health information. Data were analyzed using bivariate tests and multivariable logistic regression.ResultsBivariate analysis showed that LA use was significantly associated with male gender (45.0% vs. 33.3%, p = 0.024), lower educational levels (58.7% vs. 35.1%, p = 0.002), presence of chronic disease (54.7% vs. 32.2%, p < 0.001), older age (p = 0.028), and a higher household crowding index (p = 0.018). LA use was also more prevalent among participants impacted by political instability, economic crisis, and drug shortages (all p < 0.001). In multivariable logistic regression, chronic disease (OR = 2.711, p = 0.002), economic crisis (OR = 2.013, p < 0.001), and prior experience with the same illness (OR = 4.085, p < 0.001) were identified as significant predictors for LA use.ConclusionThese findings show the critical role of socio-economic instability, healthcare access challenges, and experiential factors as key SDOH driving LA practices. The study highlights the urgent need for multi-sectoral interventions addressing economic hardship, improving healthcare access, and enhancing public awareness to mitigate LA misuse and its contribution to antimicrobial resistance in Lebanon.

The industrial revolution which transformed Europe, and Britain in particular—was led by engineers. From James Watt to Isambard Kingdom Brunel, the finest engineers combined a whole host of skills and disciplines. They were entrepreneurs, developers, lobbyists, financiers, contractors, designers, manufacturers, and project managers—all rolled into one. And, above all, they were leaders. They inspired future generations of engineers, too, and in doing so laid the foundation of the UK’s expertise in engineering education. It is in part thanks to their example that we now teach and practice engineering as a highly dependable, highly competent profession: one which can simultaneously maintain high standards while also responding to its clients’ needs and preferences. But today we urgently need our engineers to step into those big shoes of their forebears and become leaders once again. Why? Because we now face the mother of all engineering challenges: climate change. This is the defining issue of our time. Thanks to decades of extraordinarily detailed research and analysis—in which UK scientists have played a key part—we now have a very clear understanding of both the science of climate change, and the threat it poses to us. This leaves no excuse for procrastination, or for claiming that “the jury is still out”: The science is settled, and the choices are clear. Either we act decisively to keep global temperature rises well within a two-degree limit—or we suffer some frankly devastating consequences. If we carry on “business as usual,” then the stable climate within which human civilization has flourished for millennia will fall apart. We will face floods, droughts, and heatwaves; our food and water supply will be massively disrupted; millions will migrate in search of survival. The consequences, in terms of global insecurity, of economic and political instability, hardly bear thinking about. Climate change is a “threat multiplier”: It takes existing challenges—such as political tensions, poverty alleviation, and threats to ecological security—and makes them far more difficult problems than they are now. We are already starting to see its impacts, in terms of increasingly unreliable and extreme weather. And we are barely in the foothills of the mountain of problems that climate change will pose as the weather continues to warms up. Faced with this, some people—including many in our profession—argue that we can tackle the changes by adapting to them. This is risky thinking. Yes, adaptation may play a part, and smart engineering can help here. But it can only do so much, and ultimately an “adaptive” mindset could be massively counterproductive. Just look at the example of the recent floods in the UK, where limited resources meant that some areas were protected and others were not. This was politically divisive, especially as many suspected that wealthier, more influential parts were protected at the expense of others. So there is a moral element to this issue. A focus on adaptation will often mean that the wealthy keep their lifestyle intact while the poor suffer. That is a recipe for increased global inequality and, ultimately, increased resentment and hence political turmoil, too. Meanwhile, some short term adaptation methods—on flood prevention, for example—can actually make the problem worse in the long term. And many involve expending more high-carbon energy—so such “adaptive” solutions would compound, rather than solve, climate change. The good news—and there is some—is that 2015 saw two amazing landmarks: the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change COP 21 Accord. The latter is of course the much-trumpeted Paris Agreement, the culmination of over two years’ intensive diplomatic activity. In itself, that is an amazing achievement—as any engineer who has been involved in more than a five-way international joint venture will recognize! By setting an ambitious goal to keep temperature rise to a 1.5 °C ceiling, and to move to a carbon-neutral economy, this plan plots a route to a genuinely sustainable future for our world. The Paris Agreement makes a good complement to the SDGs— 17 goals to protect the planet, end poverty, and ensure prosperity for all, each with specific targets to be achieved over the next 15 years. It is fitting that these groundbreaking landmarks materialized within months of each other—because unless we can tackle climate change, then the SDGs won’t be worth the paper they’re written on. So that is the challenge before today’s engineers and their successors: to shift decisively to a low carbon economy. This is not only economically sensible, politically wise, and morally right; it is also a fantastic creative opportunity for our profession: a chance for engineers to be real innovators on behalf of society—as they were during the industrial revolution. The challenge of decarbonizing our global economy far and

South Africa was readmitted to the international community after successful free elections in April 1994 following years of international isolation imposed on the country due to its racially motivated apartheid policies. Trade liberalization has been accompanied by responsible monetary and fiscal management and this has largely allowed South Africa to continuously experience moderate economic growth since 1994. Inflation has been within target, and the budget deficit has been falling in recent times. Since 1994, the government has channelled substantial resources into social programs and services. Despite these impressive policy reforms, the economy has failed to grow in sufficient amounts to make inroads into the high unemployment and poverty (Hoogeveen and Ozler, 2004). Following the 2004 elections the government has outlined five key development goals in the Government's Contract with the People of South Africa, namely: · Reduce poverty by half through economic development, comprehensive social security, land reform and improved household and community assets; · Provide the skills required by the economy, build capacity and provide resources across society; · Reduce unemployment by half through new jobs, skills development, assistance to small businesses, opportunities for self-employment and sustainable community livelihoods; · Massively reduce cases of TB, diabetes, malnutrition and maternal deaths, turn the tide against HIV and AIDS, strive to eliminate malaria and improve services to achieve a better national health profile; and · Reduce preventable causes of death, including violent crime and road accidents. Furthermore, government adopted the UN Millennium Declaration alongside other countries as an unprecedented declaration of solidarity to rid the world of poverty. This declaration is encapsulated in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Heads of states agreed in 2000 to use the MDGs to work together to reduce poverty by 2015 or earlier. The MDGs provide an indication of the results that the country wants to obtain (outcomes) based on certain inputs (resources), outputs (understanding of activities and changes) and impact (change/effect of intervention). Some of the outcomes indicators as expressed by the MDGs are closely related to the rights that are mentioned in the Constitution. This paper is linked to the project entitled “Realizing the Millennium Development Goals through Socially Inclusive Macroeconomic Policies” which aims to answer three key questions relating to South Africa achieving its MDGs, namely what is the likelihood of South Africa achieving the goals under current policies and investments? What changes in South Africa’s strategies and policies are required to achieve these goals? What are the costs of the different strategies, policies, and investment alternatives? This project is a joint collaboration between UNDP, UN-DESA and the World Bank. The benefits of this project are more than providing the answers to the questions mentioned above. The methodology used is a comprehensive framework to evaluate developmental policies as it links the various developmental objectives and may be applied to other policy questions and strategies within South Africa for example evaluating the success and cost of AsgiSA, as well as the Medium Term Strategic Framework (MTSF) and the New Growth Path policy. The capacity building objective of this project is also very important for South Africa as it enables South Africa to build its own capacity in this field. In conformity with the brief provided by UN-DESA, this Country Background Report includes an overview of the main reforms, macroeconomic policy, economic performance and vulnerabilities, social policy and MDG achievement in South Africa. The report is divided into nine sections. The first section provides a brief introduction. The second section offers details of economic reforms and policy during the period 1994 to 2008, as well as an overview of the performance of the economy during the same period. The third section discusses the economic constraints and vulnerabilities within the South African economy. The fourth section provides a brief summary of the status of achieving the MDGs in South Africa, attempts to identify gaps in achieving the MDGs as well as policies that may assist South Africa to achieve the MDGs. The next section, section five, provides a brief description of the methodology used and section six discusses the data used and data problems experienced. Section seven is the main section of the report and provides the results of the General Equilibrium Analysis the analysis of which attempts to answer the questions listed above. Section eight discusses the results relating to the poverty reduction goal. The last section, section five provides a brief conclusion and policy recommendations.

Illegal migration is a vexing contemporary issue for the countries from which these illegal travelers originate as well as the destination countries where they hope to settle. Therefore, countries now struggle to curb illegal migration across the world. After the end of the civil war in 2009, the favorite destination of Sri Lankans planning to migrate illegally has turned out to be Australia. Attempts by people from Sri Lanka to travel to Australia illegally have turned out to be a veritable phenomenon in recent years. This is mainly attributed to certain causes and trends that have prompted people to make attempts to reach Australia illegally. The research problem of this study is to figure out why people try to migrate to Australia by illegal means. The main objective of this study is to propose a feasible solution to mitigate the negative impacts of illegal migration to Australia. To answer these questions, this study has used both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. In addition to the secondary data collected from written sources, 10 case studies were undertaken, in which in-depth interviews were carried out using open-ended and unstructured questions. Discourse analysis and phenomenological data analysis tools were used to analyze the data. Findings of the research showed that a variety of causes, such as poor economic prospects, social problems, and political marginalization, were responsible for the increasing trend towards illegal migration to other countries. This study also found a paradigm shift in the illegal migration of Sri Lankans from Australia to New Zealand.

Unemployment is a recurring issue every year, particularly in provinces with high unemployment rates, posing economic and social challenges. West Java, Riau Islands, and Banten are identified as the three provinces with the highest unemployment rates, exceeding 8% in the year 2022. Hence, this study aims to delve into the unemployment scenario in these provinces, considering various influencing factors drawn from relevant previous research. The primary objective of this research is to obtain the classification results of regencies/cities in West Java, Riau Islands, and Banten based on unemployment indicators. The findings reveal four clusters: Cluster 1 comprises 13 regencies/cities with the lowest unemployment rates, Cluster 2 includes 4 regencies/cities with low unemployment rates, Cluster 3 consists of 13 regencies/cities with moderate unemployment rates, and Cluster 4 encompasses 12 regencies/cities with high unemployment rates.

Fatalities from illegal immigration from Africa is an important issue, representing a major challenge for both major migrant sending and receiving countries. Nonetheless, almost nothing is known about how the illegal migration intentions of potential migrants are formed. This paper aims to explain the factors behind the formation of these intentions to migrate illegally by using an original survey among urban Senegalese individuals. Remarkably, the results show that potential illegal migrants are willing to accept a substantial risk of death (25% at the median). Furthermore, the paper also finds that the price of illegal migration, migrant networks and high expectations play important roles in the decision to illegally migrate. Moreover, I find that, contrary to conventional thinking, stricter immigration policies deter potential legal migrants more than potential illegal migrants.

This paper investigates the effect of U.S. border enforcement on the net flow of Mexican undocumented migration. It shows how this effect is theoretically ambiguous, given that increases in border controls deter prospective migrants from crossing the border illegally, but lengthen the duration of current illegal migrations. It then estimates the impact of enforcement on 1972-1993 migration net flows by merging aggregate enforcement data with micro data on potential and current illegal Mexican migrants. The econometric model accounts for the endogeneity of border controls using the Drug Enforcement Administration budget as an instrumental variable. Both the inflow and outflow of illegal Mexican migration are highly sensitive to changes in border enforcement. The estimates of the enforcement overall effect on illegal migration's net flow range across different specifications, from a decline - about 35% of the size of the effect on the inflow - to an increase. Thus, they suggest that border enforcement may not be an effective means to reduce the level of the illegal alien population in the United States.