Do social motivations predict addiction to social media in young people? The role of flow and algorithm awareness

Objective: The purpose of this study was to examine motivations for social media use (social connectedness, entertainment, social recognition, information) and its relationship with the addictive use of social media among emerging adult university students. Method: In this quantitative study, data were collected from emerging adult university students (N = 446) who completed The Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS) and the Scale of Motives for Using Social Networking Sites (SMU-SNS). Results: The findings showed a moderately strong, positive relationship between addictive use of social media and social connectedness and social recognition motivations. The findings also revealed that females and on-campus students more frequently experience the addictive use of social media than males and off-campus students. Conclusion: The findings from this study provided broad support for the notion that there are significant results that it may still be important to explore a further understanding of the link between the addictive use of social media and different motivations for social media use.

(1) Background: Temporal relationships between nomophobia (anxiety related to ‘no mobile phone phobia’), addictive use of social media, and insomnia are understudied. The present study aimed to use a longitudinal design to investigate temporal relationships between nomophobia, addictive use of social media, and insomnia among Iranian adolescents; (2) Methods: A total of 1098 adolescents (600 males; 54.6%; age range = 13 to 19) were recruited from 40 randomly selected classes in Qazvin, Iran. They completed baseline assessments. The same cohort was invited to complete three follow-up assessments one month apart. Among the 1098 adolescents, 812 (400 males; 49.3%; age range = 13 to 18) completed the baseline and three follow-up assessments. In each assessment, the participants completed three questionnaires, including the Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q), Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), and Insomnia Severity Index (ISI); (3) Results: Multilevel linear mixed-effects regression analyses showed that participants demonstrated increased insomnia longitudinally over 3 months (B = 0.12 and 0.19; p = 0.003 and <0.001). Insomnia was associated with nomophobia (B = 0.20; p < 0.001) and addictive use of social media (B = 0.49; p < 0.001). Nomophobia and addictive use of social media interacted with time in associations with insomnia as demonstrated by significant interaction terms (B = 0.05; p < 0.001 for nomophobia; B = 0.13; p < 0.001 for addictive use of social media); (4) Conclusions: Both nomophobia and addictive use of social media are potential risk factors for adolescent insomnia. The temporal relationship between the three factors suggests that parents, policymakers, and healthcare providers may target reducing nomophobia and addictive use of social media to improve adolescents’ sleep.

Increasing child and adolescent use of social media, video games, and mobile phones has raised concerns about potential links to youth mental health problems. Prior research has largely focused on total screen time rather than longitudinal addictive use trajectories. To identify trajectories of addictive use of social media, mobile phones, and video games and to examine their associations with suicidal behaviors and ideation and mental health outcomes among youths. Cohort study analyzing data from baseline through year 4 follow-up in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study (2016-2022), with population-based samples from 21 US sites. Addictive use of social media, mobile phones, and video games using validated child-reported measures from year 2, year 3, and year 4 follow-up surveys. Suicidal behaviors and ideation assessed using child- and parent-reported information via the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia. Internalizing and externalizing symptoms were assessed using the parent-reported Child Behavior Checklist. The analytic sample (n = 4285) had a mean age of 10.0 (SD, 0.6) years; 47.9% were female; and 9.9% were Black, 19.4% Hispanic, and 58.7% White. Latent class linear mixed models identified 3 addictive use trajectories for social media and mobile phones and 2 for video games. Nearly one-third of participants had an increasing addictive use trajectory for social media or mobile phones beginning at age 11 years. In adjusted models, increasing addictive use trajectories were associated with higher risks of suicide-related outcomes than low addictive use trajectories (eg, increasing addictive use of social media had a risk ratio of 2.14 [95% CI, 1.61-2.85] for suicidal behaviors). High addictive use trajectories for all screen types were associated with suicide-related outcomes (eg, high-peaking addictive use of social media had a risk ratio of 2.39 [95% CI, 1.66-3.43] for suicidal behaviors). The high video game addictive use trajectory showed the largest relative difference in internalizing symptoms (T score difference, 2.03 [95% CI, 1.45-2.61]), and the increasing social media addictive use trajectory for externalizing symptoms (T score difference, 1.05 [95% CI, 0.54-1.56]), compared with low addictive use trajectories. Total screen time at baseline was not associated with outcomes. High or increasing trajectories of addictive use of social media, mobile phones, or video games were common in early adolescents. Both high and increasing addictive screen use trajectories were associated with suicidal behaviors and ideation and worse mental health.

Since the Covid-19 outbreak, addictive social media use increased in many countries. To better understand this development, a universal instrument for the assessment of addictive social media use is required. Against this background, we examined the psychometric properties of the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS) in representative population samples in nine countries (N = 9418, age range: “18 to 24 years” (youngest group), “55 years and older” (oldest group): China, France, Germany, Poland, Russia, Spain, Sweden, U.K., U.S.). Furthermore, we investigated potential factors and mechanisms that could be associated with addictive social media use. Our cross-national findings show that the BSMAS is a unidimensional reliable and valid instrument. Moreover, they reveal that the negative association between positive mental health and addictive social media use is mediated by sense of control in seven of the nine countries (exception: China, Russia). Thus, it can be hypothesized that activities which increase positive mental health could indirectly contribute to the decrease of addictive social media use. We identified conscious engagement in physical activity and a regular sleep rhythm during the pandemic as such potential activities. The fostering of both by governmental programs could enhance positive mental health and reduce addictive social media use.

Individual differences influencing the relationship between online social support and addictive use of social media

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic is likely to enhance the risk of addictive social media use (SMU) as people spend more time online maintaining connectivity when face-to-face communication is limited. Stress is assumed to be a critical predictor of addictive SMU. However, the mechanisms underlying the association between stress and addictive SMU in crises like the current COVID-19 situation remain unclear. The present study aimed to understand the relationship between COVID-19 stress and addictive SMU by examining the mediating role of active use and social media flow (i.e., an intensive, enjoyable experience generated by SMU that perpetuates media use behaviors). A sample of 512 Chinese college students (Mage = 22.12 years, SD = 2.47; 62.5% women) provided self-report data on COVID-19 stress and SMU variables (i.e., time, active use, flow, addictive behavior) via an online survey from March 24 to April 1, 2020. The results showed that COVID-19 stress was positively associated with tendencies toward addictive SMU. Path analyses revealed that this relationship was significantly serially mediated by active use and social media flow, with SMU time being controlled. Our findings suggest that individuals who experience more COVID-19 stress are at increased risk of addictive SMU that may be fostered by active use and flow experience. Specific attention should be paid to these high-risk populations and future interventions to reduce addictive SMU could consider targeting factors of both active use and social media flow.

Abstract: Theoretical Background: The use of social media has become an integral part of the lives of young people. Negative effects on mental health have been reported previously; however, it remained unclear whether the amount of time spent with social media use per se or its usage patterns lead to possible impairments. Addictive use is characterized by compulsive usage patterns in contrast to a flexible use. Objective: The present work investigated the associations between the amount of time spent with social media, the usage pattern (i. e., addictive use vs. flexible use), and the occurrence of depressive symptoms. Method: Cross-sectional data based on the self-reports of 513 high-school students aged 11 – 19 ( M = 12.91, SD = 1.02) from 39 classes (18 schools) in Baden-Wuerttemberg, Germany, are presented. Hierarchically linear models accounted for the nested structure and were applied to investigate the predictive significance of time spent with social media and addictive use of social media on depressive symptoms. Results: Addictive use of social media could be identified as a significant predictor of depressive symptoms and explained 17 % of variance in depressive symptoms in the present model. Time spent with social media use did not explain a significant share of variance in depressive symptoms, after controlling for addictive social media use. Discussion and Conclusion: These findings highlight that it is not the time spent on social media per se, but the addictive usage patterns that explain a significant share of depressive symptoms in adolescents. Although a reciprocal or circular association between both disorders can be assumed, addictive usage patterns of social media may represent a potential risk to adolescents’ mental health. To prevent negative consequences of social media use, interventions should focus on the particular functionality of social media use.

How to prevent side effects of social media use (SMU)? Relationship between daily stress, online social support, physical activity and addictive tendencies – A longitudinal approach before and during the first Covid-19 lockdown in Germany

The use of social media has grown exponentially to the extent of engaging close to one third of the world’s population as of January 2016. Actually, social media statistics have been reporting an average annual increase of 10% in total number of users. These extremely impressive statistics have been triggering researchers’ interest in investigating this phenomenon and its impact on every aspect of users’ lives. Our study is an attempt to contribute to the knowledge that is building up in relation to this phenomenon by examining the relationships between the addictive use of social media, self-esteem, and satisfaction with life. To achieve this purpose, a generic questionnaire, the Social Media Addiction Questionnaire (SMAQ), was used stemming from the Facebook Intrusion Questionnaire. Respondents completed an online survey questionnaire which collected demographic information and responses to SMAQ, Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale, and the Satisfaction with Life Scale. In addition to assessing SMAQ’s psychometric properties, data analyses included Pearson correlations between the variables, regression analysis, and structural equation modeling. Results showed that a one-factor model of SMAQ had good psychometric properties and had high internal consistency. As for relations, addictive use of social media had a negative association with self-esteem, and the latter had a positive association with satisfaction with life. Furthermore, path analysis showed that self-esteem mediated the effect of social media addiction on satisfaction with life.

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship of addictive use of social media (AUSM) with depressive symptoms, perceived social support and demographic variables among people aged 65 years and older. People aged 65 years and older who use social media constituted the study sample. The data were obtained from social networking sites via Google survey link. Bergen social media addiction scale (BSMAS) for determining AUSM, Multidimensional Scale of Social Support for determining social support, Geriatric Depression Scale to identify depressive symptoms and sociodemographic data form were administered to the participants. The mean age of the sample was 68.86± 2.0 years. AUSM showed significant differences depending on gender, marital status, economic status, educational level, settlement, occupation, and time spent in social media (P=0.00). AUSM had correlations with both sub-dimensions of perceived social support and depressive symptoms (P < 0.01). In the regression analysis, it was found that the depressive symptoms, social support from family (P=0.00) and from a significant other (P=0.001) had significant effects on AUSM. When evaluating elderly individuals with depressive symptoms, it is important to evaluate these individuals in terms of social media addiction. Interventions to improve social support systems, especially for older people with little perceived social support can help prevent the development of AUSM.

Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate the association between personality disorders and social media use. Methods: Five hundred and ten university students participated in the study. Personality Belief Questionnaire-Short form was used to assess DSM-based personality disorder symptoms and Social Media Disorder Scale was used to determine addictive use of social media. In addition, daily usage of social media, frequency of taking and sharing selfies were examined using a questionnaire created by the authors. Results: Participants with high levels of Social Media Disorder demonstrated higher levels of avoidant, dependent, antisocial, histrionic, paranoid and borderline personality features compared to those with low levels of social media disorder. Results of multivariate analyses showed that addictive use of social media, daily duration of social media use and frequency of selfie sharing were positively predicted by histrionic personality features and female gender. Furthermore, selfie taking was predicted only by narcissistic personality features. Conclusion: This study indicates that histrionic personality features may be risk factors for addictive use of social media.

Aim Intensive use of social media and poor mental health among young adults have become a topic of growing concern in many countries. Recent research assumed that addictive social media use (SMU) could contribute to a decrease of mental health. The present cross-national study investigated the mechanisms that could explain these findings in Germany and Israel. Subject and methods Data of young students in Germany ( N = 238) and Israel ( N = 126) on addictive SMU, loneliness, and mental health (operationalized by depressive symptoms and positive mental health, PMH) were collected via online surveys. Results In both countries, we found the same result pattern. Addictive SMU was significantly positively associated with loneliness and depressive symptoms; PMH was significantly negatively linked to addictive SMU and loneliness. Moreover, loneliness mediated the association between addictive SMU and depressive symptoms, as well as between addictive SMU and PMH. Conclusions The current results reveal that the higher addictive SMU, the higher loneliness and the higher depressive symptoms or the lower PMH. The effects were found in young people in Germany and Israel even though they live under varying degrees of exposure to global challenges such as military conflicts. Potential ways how to reduce their loneliness and to protect their mental health are discussed.

Cooperative Mentorship: Negotiating Social Media Use within the Family

Examining only screen time and addictive use may overlook critical aspects of social media use. Therefore, this study aimed to explore social media screen time, addictive use, motives, and content—both interrelations and how these variables are associated with psychosocial problems. We also examined sex differences. High school and university students (n = 1820) completed a digital survey. Interrelations between the social media use variables were mostly significant, but modest, and the variables explained as much as 33–40% of the variance in psychosocial outcomes (i.e., psychosomatic problems, low self-esteem, and social problems). Addictive use in terms of negative consequences was related to all three outcomes. In addition, the motive Escape and Appearance-based content were strongly related to both psychosomatic problems and low self-esteem, whereas the motive Social Compensation and Negative content were strongly related to social problems. Females scored higher on most social media use variables, including a higher prevalence of social media disorder. Sex moderated some associations, but interaction effects were small. Associations were primarily linear. Conclusively, social media content and motives explain a large amount of the variance in psychosocial outcomes, emphasizing the importance of moving beyond screen time. Future research should further investigate these aspects to develop more targeted interventions aimed at reducing social media’s negative mental health impact.

The concept of an addictive process related to social media use, specifically for youth, has been explored in several venues including the attempt to identify factors of vulnerability in predicting excessive or maladaptive use of social media. While the focus has been on personal characteristics, there are also clear environmental stressors or situational variables that affect particular populations that might contribute to patterns of addictive social media use, such as limited social and recreational outlets, restricted movement, and access to in-person socialization with peers, as well as stress related to local geographic political conflict. The current study examines the concept of geopolitical vulnerability related to living in a militarized occupied area and patters of maladaptive addicted social media use in young adults. The sample included 744 students at An-Najah National University of Palestine all residing in the occupied West Bank of Palestine. The results indicate that the level of maladaptive use of social media is high with a vast majority of students scoring within the range of an addictive pattern of use (47%). These findings are qualified by the variables of gender, with males at highest risk, and level of study with bachelor level students exhibiting significantly more addictive behaviors than master’s level students in regard to social media. In a geopolitical area with high stress and few opportunities for leisure activities or open socialization, it is not difficult to imagine a heightened vulnerability to an addictive pattern of social media use given its continual availability, relative easy access, and contrived feeling of social satisfaction for youth. However, this virtual “fix” may come at a high price for developing adults who lack social skills for their challenging environments, are unable to discern reality from the fantasy of social media, and are creating habits that will be formative in their adulthood. Further investigation is needed to examine the specific risks of excessive social media use and structural societal changes needed to add protective factors to combat social media addiction in the upcoming generations in high stress areas.