Distinguishing Moral Outrage and Empathetic Anger: Advancing the Triadic Appraisal Framework of Situational Crisis Communication Theory

Sticky crises present unique challenges to crisis managers thereby serving as a provocation to crisis communication researchers. The provocation provided by sticky crises is the need to reconsider the existing crisis communication knowledge base. At times, researchers and practitioners overreact to new factors influencing crisis communication by claiming everything we once knew is no longer valid. We witnessed some of the invalidation claims appearing when social media complicated crisis communication. Sticky crises do not invalidate the existing crisis communication knowledge base but do create an exigency to expand that knowledge base. Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) is an essential element within the crisis communication knowledge base. This chapter examines SCCT’s applicability to sticky crises. That exploration involves elaborating on SCCT, identifying where SCCT fits with sticky crises, and detailing where the theory misses with sticky crises. The fit helps to explain how SCCT still works for sticky crises, while the misses identify gaps in SCCT where additional insights are needed when managing sticky crises. The chapter provides some insights into how sticky crises can affect the evolution of crisis communication research and theory.

Affective disposition theory explains that people feel happiness or distress when observing success or failure of protagonist. Applying affective disposition theory and situational crisis communication theory, the main purpose of this study is to investigate whether CSR reputation acts as a predisposition factor in a product-harm crisis. Using both affective disposition theory and situational crisis communication theory, a randomized 2 (high and low CSR reputation) × 2 (victim and preventable crises) full factorial design experiment was conducted with 227 participants (average age 30.28 years). There were main effects of both CSR reputation and crisis types on generating anger and sympathy toward the companies that experience a crisis. Furthermore, a good CSR reputation particularly worked as a predisposition factor for sympathy. Practical and theoretical implications are also discussed.

Does one size fit all? The applicability of situational crisis communication theory in the Japanese context

Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) posits that communicative responses to individual crises must be customized to each situation. An organization’s response following a crisis event could be to deny any knowledge of the crisis, accept full responsibility for the crisis or any of the various options spanning the difference. The options chosen by an organization dictate perceived damage or increase of organizational reputation (Coombs & Holladay, 2002). This study continues the evolution of SCCT by measuring respondent’s perceptions of crisis response strategies and their ability to protect organizational reputation. / SCCT had identified ten crisis response strategies and grouped them into three clusters based on their incremental ability to protect organizational reputation. The purpose of this study was to establish that the communicative responses chosen by organizations during crisis grant the incremental protective powers established by Coombs (2006). / This study surveyed 164 undergraduate communication students from a predominantly rural area currently attending a Midwestern university. A 7-point Likert scale was used to determine two items: emphasis on protecting crisis victims and organizational acceptance of responsibility for each in a set of ten, single sentence crisis response strategies. / Hierarchical cluster analysis was used to group similar survey responses and resulted in two distinct clusters that correspond to the “deny” cluster and the combined “diminish” and “deal” clusters that were established by Coombs (2006). Analysis demonstrated these two clusters to be statistically distinct. Responses were relatively homogenous across the range of respondents’ demographics. / Organizational reputation is an asset that must be managed in times of crisis. SCCT attempts to customize response to crisis situations to minimize negative effects on reputation. This research shows that respondents assigned relatively low protective powers to the crisis management strategies: attack the accuser, deny, and scapegoat. Higher levels of protective power were attributed to the strategies: excuse, justification, ingratiation, concern, compassion, regret, and apology. These results provide insight into stakeholder perceptions during crisis, but more research is needed before SCCT can be considered practical to crisis management practitioners by supporting decisions to use appropriate response strategies depending on the situational need.

Aircraft accidents show that the industry is vulnerable to crisis and capture the complexity of crisis management and communication. This study examines the crisis response strategies employed by Sriwijaya Air in the aftermath of the SJ-182 plane crash on January 9, 2021. Utilizing the Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) framework, the research categorizes and analyzes the airline's crisis communication actions based on primary and secondary strategies. The content analysis of news articles from Kompas.com, Detik.com, CNN Indonesia, and Reuters, as well as posts from Sriwijaya Air's social media accounts, reveals the implementation of excuse, compensation, partial apology, and ingratiation strategies. The findings indicate that while Sriwijaya Air avoided denial strategies, its delayed response negatively impacted public perception. The study highlights the importance of prompt and transparent communication in crisis management. It suggests areas for future research, including examining internal decision-making processes and the long-term impacts on organizational reputation and resilience.

Major League Baseball (MLB) has been criticized for its handling of the Astros’ cheating scandal. Researchers used a case study method to test whether Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) should be expanded to include collaborative brand attack (CBA) as a crisis type. Researchers used traditional and extended SCCT to analyze MLB’s crisis response to determine which version fit best. Data were triangulated from sports news sources, MLB’s official statement and Twitter account, and social media influencer and stakeholder posts. Researchers asked which SCCT response MLB used and whether it was effective with stakeholders. Because of poor history, MLB’s accidental crisis response mismatched the level of stakeholder attribution of responsibility. Another question examined the role of social media. Major League Baseball underestimated the role of social media and SM influencers and, by underutilizing its Twitter feed, left stakeholders to attribute greater responsibility to MLB. Two final questions asked whether SCCT should be updated to include the CBA crisis type and whether it applied in this case. The results indicate the negative consequences of crisis/response mismatch and indicate that CBA should be incorporated into SCCT to address social media influence. This is the first known study to apply CBA in a sports context.

This study uses moral outrage to create a triadic appraisal of crises for situational crisis communication theory (SCCT). The addition of moral outrage improves the theory with an eye toward enhancing its application to the practice of crisis communication. The authors argue that adding moral outrage resulted in a needed reconceptualization of the preventable crisis cluster in SCCT identified by earlier researchers. Moral outrage becomes a third factor stakeholders utilize to assess crisis threats along with (1) determining if the situation is negative and (2) evaluations of crisis responsibility. The results of the study indicate that the preventable crisis cluster should be treated as three distinct sub-clusters. We argue that this triadic appraisal of crisis threat improves SCCT theoretically and has implications for the practice of crisis communication.

Affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, the Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games were postponed for a year. While getting through with the organizing of an Olympic Games amid a global pandemic is seen as a success by many ('The Good'), it was overshadowed by the relentless virus as the Games closed with a muted spectacle in 2021 ('The Bad'). Pushing on with the Games after the postponement, at the height of the pandemic, has resulted in strong criticisms and caused damage to the organizers ('The Ugly'). This study seeks to assess the crisis communication strategies implemented by the organizers as they navigated the capricious condition of trudging on with a pandemic era sport spectacle. Through examining the organizers' crisis communications to the challenges that emerged and public reactions to the strategies, this study seeks to understand the outcome of the strategies on the organizational image and reputation. It also provides reflections on the management of the Games through the COVID-19 pandemic. In this regard, it is argued that the situational crisis communication theory offers a useful framework that can provide theoretical connections between crisis management in a sports mega-event and organizational response strategies.

Background: Sexual harassment incidents at higher education institutions can trigger crises that have a detrimental impact on public trust and institutional reputation. Purpose: This study analyzes the crisis management and reaction approach employed by the University of Argopuro in the aftermath of a sexual harassment event involving its Rector. Methods: The study employed a qualitative case study approach and collected data through in-depth interviews with senior administrators and document analysis. Results: The findings reveal that the university implemented a five-step crisis management model, integrating adaptive strategies with Image Restoration Theory (IRT) and Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT). These strategies focused on transparency, accountability, and victim protection. The study highlights those key methods, including appointing a spokesperson, issuing press releases, forming a crisis management team, and establishing a Gender Studies Centre to foster systemic reform and prevention. The study offers four novel crisis response strategies: attitude statements for transparency, victim protection plans, organizational accountability mechanisms, and follow-up initiatives to sustain cultural transformation. While SCCT and IRT provided a foundational framework, this study highlights the limitations of the frameworks in addressing the deeper systemic issues surrounding sexual harassment, emphasizing the need for long-term cultural change. Moreover, the results highlight the need to integrate crisis communication theories with adaptive, victim-centered approaches to address preventable crises effectively. Conclusions: The study concludes that a comprehensive and transparent crisis management process can mitigate reputational damage, restore stakeholder trust, and promote systemic reforms. Implications: The study contributes to public relations literature by establishing the applicability of combined theoretical and adaptive strategies in complex academic crises, recommending practical insights for public relations practitioners in higher education institutions worldwide. Future research should expand the application of these strategies across diverse cultural and organizational contexts to validate their effectiveness.

Situational crisis communication theory (SCCT) is applied in this research to evaluate Air Asia crisis responses. The research tests whether crisis responses are consistent with the SCCT premise related to situation when a crisis has more than one cluster. SCCT argues that in this case, organisation’s crisis response strategy is adjusted according to the crisis clusters. The crisis manager can use a defensive strategy for victim cluster and an accommodative strategy when the company has intentional cluster. From the premise, the researchers formulates a proposition: because of having two crisis clusters (victim and intentional clusters), the crisis response strategies of Air Asia are defensive and accommodative. This study analyses both news and press releases on the selected crisis. The content analysis of media news reveals that the company has both intentional and victim clusters, although the intentional cluster is reported more frequently. Content analysis of the company’s press releases identifies that the response strategies are accommodative and bolstering instead of accommodative and defensive. Accommodative strategy is used because most public attributions appeared to be intentional, while a defensive strategy is not applied because the media rarely reported the event as victim cluster. As a result, the company were able to successfully deal with the crisis. It can be concluded that a company with two crisis clusters should choose the relevant crisis response strategy in accordance with the type of the cluster in the public domain. Keywords: Crisis cluster, crisis response, crisis communication, public relations, situational communication theory.

The following study analyzes the crisis communication strategy selection of general motors (GM) through the company’s filing for chapter 11. The study uses Coombs situational crisis communication theory (SCCT) model as a framework for understanding and suggesting future crisis communication strategy selections. The study found GM followed the guidelines outlined by the SCCT model in successfully negotiating reputational management through a financial crisis. The study suggests companies facing similar crises should follow similar strategy selection; however Deal Cluster strategy selection should take into account leadership transitions. Key words: Crisis communication, situational crisis communication theory, situational crisis communication theory, general motors, bankruptcy, chapter 11, communication strategy.

Extant literature on crisis and corporate reputation management has presented the Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) model as a valid and reliable framework for managing crisis and predicting stakeholders’perceptions of organizations’ reputation in times of crisis. In order to verifythe applicability of the model in higher institutions of learning in adeveloping country context, a study was conducted in September, 2011 in twopublic universities in Nigeria. The findings of the study revealed thatalthough the institutions did not fully implement the core tenets of SCCT, thestrategies adopted in each of the two crisis situations were similar to some ofthe recommendations of the SCCT in different ways. While one institutionfocused on a strategy similar to what the SCCT model describes as “rebuildcrisis response strategy” with informing and adjusting tactics, the secondinstitution utilized a victimization or “Victimage” strategy with strongattribution of blames; and frequent reminder of the stakeholders of the extentof losses that the institution would incur from the crisis. The outcome wasthat the institution with high emphasis on rebuilding and informationadjustment strategy recorded very little damage to its reputation capital, duringand after the crises. Conversely, the second institution which believed invictimization and high attribution recorded significant losses in reputation assets,which included withdrawal of key stakeholders and loss of recognition ofprograms by some professional agencies. The implication for crisis managers in thetwo institutions includes the need to always approach situational crises in aholistic manner. Such holistic approach would involve a refocus, critical analysis,planning and implementation of crisis response strategies based on the relevantsituations, events, and the people concerned. The research was designed as acase study with focus group discussions as the data collection method.Altogether, 16 officers including eight top and senior administrative staff whowere actively involved in the negotiation and communication programs during the crises in the two institutions participated in the focus group discussions.Keywords: situational crisis, reputation risk, stakeholders’perceptions, stakeholders’ value, reputation capital, reputation assets

By applying principles of situational crisis communication theory (SCCT), this research explains crisis termination in follow-up of Operation Swift Retort. India’s introduction of surgical strikes, coupled with military mobilisation, has further raised questions on deterrence equilibrium and strategic stability in South Asia. This research establishes that crisis termination after 2019 rests on how each player responds to change in strategic or doctrinal positions of the other. It also explains that Pulwama-Balakot crisis was an ideal test case for SCCT as both states were able to terminate an otherwise escalation-intensive environment into termination of crisis without significant escalation. This research also suggests how SCCT can be used in tandem with attribution theory to identify reasons for inadvertent escalation and how SCCT can be an effective tool in eliminating such tendencies in the future. This research identifies factors and reasons behind inadvertent escalation and inability of actors to engage in crisis termination and effective communication. Trust deficit and unilateral alterations to status quo, doctrinal and posture-orientation, are some of the factors explained in this research by applying SCCT. This research concludes that SCCT can be used as a tool to understand through the lens of Operation Swift Retort and process of crisis termination thereof.

This study investigated the effect of crisis communication management on organizational performance at Kenya Pipeline Company, a state-owned enterprise central to Kenya’s energy security. Anchored on the Situational Crisis Communication Theory, the research examined how initial response time, recovery time, and update frequency influence key performance indicators such as revenue growth, profitability, and operational efficiency. A descriptive research design with a quantitative orientation was adopted, using stratified random sampling to collect data from 280 respondents directly involved in crisis management and communication. Data were collected through structured questionnaires and analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The descriptive results indicated that respondents agreed effective communication practices particularly timely responses (M = 3.37), frequent updates (M = 3.36), and clear messaging (M = 3.43) enhance coordination, reduce confusion, and strengthen stakeholder trust. Inferential analysis showed that crisis communication management strongly predicts organizational performance, with regression results indicating R = .991, R² = .982, F(1,63) = 3535.741, and a standardized coefficient β = .991 (p < .001). These findings confirm that 98.2% of the variation in performance outcomes is explained by communication practices, underscoring the centrality of structured communication frameworks in driving resilience and efficiency. The study concludes that crisis communication management is a strategic determinant of organizational performance. It recommends that Kenya Pipeline Company institutionalize structured communication protocols, integrate them with business continuity systems, invest in staff training, and adopt digital platforms for real-time updates. Such measures will enhance recovery timelines, protect reputation, and secure stakeholder confidence during crises. Keywords: Crisis Communication Management, Organizational Performance, Kenya Pipeline Company, Situational Crisis Communication Theory, State-Owned Enterprises

Warranted inferences of mediation and possibility of a threshold effect: Verifying the mediating effects of anger in situational crisis communication theory