Dispossessed and Exposed: Bearing the Burden of Development and Breathing Dust Among Rural Farmers in Ethiopia

This study seeks to determine access to and utilization of agricultural Information on Wheat bread by smallholder farmers of Gedab Hasasa district. The study was motivated by the fact that benefits of agricultural information communication development still need to be known among rural smallholder farmers in the district. It is also not effectively communicated to farmers especially in rural areas although access to and utilization modern information technology is largely available. This paper will examine the relevance of AIs to the rural farmers in Ethiopia. The objectives of the study are to assess the status of access and utilization of agricultural information of rural farmers in Gedab Hasasa district; to identify the constraints faced by farmers to access and utilization of agricultural information to rural farmers and to determine the relation between dependent and independent variables. The sample size was 138 respondents. Random sampling was used in identifying the respondents. A questionnaire was used to solicit responses from the respondents. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics. As a descriptive statistic, frequency, percentage, minimum, maximum, and range was used. In relation to statistical tests, one-way ANOVA, F-value, Chi-square and spearman’s rho were applied. Data was analyzed using SPSS and presented in tables. From the study, except Age all explanatory variables were positively significant relation with information access and utilization categories of the farmers. One of the major challenges to access to AIs was lack of awareness, inadequacy of facilities or professional and DAs biasness in the area. The others, such as lack of credit services, lack of money (Unaffordable price of inputs) and untimely delivery of agricultural inputs was the main constraints to utilized accessed information among the farmers. It was therefore, recommended the need for government, NGOs and public intervention to provide appropriate extension services, to improve DAs capacity through training and create conducive work environment and also establish training sectors for the rural farmers to access the agricultural information as well as to strength the capacity of the existing rural financial institutions and establishing new financial institution, encouraging the farmers to participate in cooperative organization and others local organization to increase accessed information utilization of the farmers. Keywords: Agricultural information, access, utilization, bread wheat production package, smallholder farmers, Ethiopia. DOI: 10.7176/JIEA/10-4-01 Publication date: September 30 th 2020

Ethiopian Smallholder farmers is highly vulnerable to climate variability and change due to its great reliance on climate sensetive economy .Different empirical evidence's has put forward about climate change perception and adaptation practices.However, the findings of major studies are highly aggregated and are of little help in addressing local peculiarities of perception and adaptation strategies .While, others were vague to understandand and finally difficult to implement at farm level. Hence ,this paper reviews the empirical literature on smallholder farmers’ perceptions and adaptation strategies of climate change in Ethiopia with specific objectives of; to review the Smallholder framers’ perception to climate change, to identify climate change adaptation strategies used by Smallholder farmers’ and to review factors that determine smallholder farmers choice of climate change adaptation strategies in Ethiopia.This paper was prepared through wide spread review of empirical evidence's. The review found that the majority of farmers in Ethiopia are aware of climate change in average change in temperatures and rainfall pattern with passion of weather extremes such as droughts ,floods,pest and disease manifestation. To deal with up the unfavorable sound effects of climate change, farmers have adopted strategies like crop diversification, using improved varieties, changing planting and harvesting dates, irrigation, planting tree crops, water and soil conservation techniques,switching to non-farm income activities, marketing during forage shock, using drought tolerant breed andfodder preservation.But , preference of adaptation strategies differs from place to place, farms to farms, and households capacity. At household level, most of the empirical evidence revealed Agro-ecological setting, sex, education level, landholding, farm income, non-farm income, livestock ownership, access to credit, extension visit, farmer-to-farmer extension, access to climate information and average distance from home to the farm have significant influence on the choice of climate adaptation strategies.The review result depicted that there is much dearth of empirical evidences regarding livestock sectors so far as much of the research is focused on crop sector's.Therefore, it has been suggested to further investigate deep rooted emperical evidence's on adaptation strategies of livestock sectors and available indigenous knowledge especially in pastoral areas.Further more, there is a need to explore impacts of climate change and single adaptation strategies on livelihood of smallholder's farmers at each farm level autonomously. Keywords: adaptation strategies; climate change; Ethiopia, perceptions; Smallholder farmer's DOI: 10.7176/IAGS/82-03 Publication date: May 31 st 2020

Impact and adaptation of climate variability and change on small-holders and agriculture in Ethiopia: A review

Climate change poses a significant threat to smallholder farmers by altering rainfall patterns, increasing temperatures, and intensifying extreme weather events. These changes result in reduced crop yields, water scarcity, and greater vulnerability to pests, threatening food security and livelihoods. In Ethiopia, particularly in the Haramaya District, the livelihoods of people are predominantly reliant on subsistence rain-fed agriculture, rendering smallholder farmers highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The resilience of smallholder farmers is closely tied to their ability to adapt to changing climatic conditions. In the Haramaya District, severe climate change poses significant challenges for smallholder farmers in maintaining their agricultural livelihoods. Therefore, this study was conducted to examine the climate change adaptation strategies adopted by smallholder farmers in Haramaya District, Oromia National Regional State, Ethiopia. Both primary and secondary data sources were utilized. Primary data were gathered through household surveys involving 189 randomly selected smallholder farmers, as well as Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and Key Informant Interviews (KIIs). Secondary data were obtained from prior studies and relevant institutional reports. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and a multinomial probit model. The findings of the study show that farmers adopted a variety of climate change adaptation strategies. The most commonly reported strategy was changing livestock type (22.75%), while changing the planting period was the least adopted (16.40%). Other notable strategies included soil and water conservation (22.22%), income diversification (20.63%), and the cultivation of drought-tolerant crops (17.99%). he multinomial probit model identified several factors that significantly influence smallholder farmers’ decisions in selecting adaptation strategies in response to climate change in the study area, such as age, access to climate information, livestock holdings, irrigation access, education level, frequency of extension visits, active labor size, and access to credit. The findings emphasize the urgent need for governmental and non-governmental organizations to strengthen support for smallholder farmers by improving access to credit, raising awareness about effective climate change adaptation strategies, and providing comprehensive extension services. Additionally, efforts should focus on enhancing educational opportunities, particularly in climate resilience, and investing in long-term climate mitigation initiatives. These measures are essential to enhance the adaptive capacities of farmers and ensure their sustainable livelihoods in the face of climate change.

Farms less than 2 hectares have constituted almost 90% of the total number of farms in Ethiopia. These small farms are rain fed and are vulnerable to climate change and variability extremes such as droughts. This in turn undermined the ability of smallholders' farmers to feed themselves and the growing population. A questionnaire survey was conducted with a random sample of 355 smallholder farmers distributed in three agro-ecologies, namely, lowland, midland, and highland in central rift valley of Ethiopia (Arsi Negele district). This was supplemented with 18 focus group discussions and 30 key informant interviews. How do smallholder farmers live with climate change and variability challenges? On the basis of this question, this study has assessed the factors that determine the adaptive capacities, strategies and livelihoods of smallholders to climate change and variability; and the role of climate capacities and landscape functions for sustainable adaptation in response to climate change and variability. The results showed that even if most respondents (>95%) have the perception and intention of climate change; it was nearly 3% of them have higher adaptive capacity to adapt to climate change impacts. Adaptive capacity of smallholders and the potential impact exerted by climate change risks were negatively correlated (r = −0.134 and p < 0.02). The results showed that farmers have made some evolution in their livelihoods as an adaptation strategy. Adaptation strategies explicitly depend on adaptive capacity-human, natural, financial, social and physical resources. Indeed, the results indicated limited climate-specific and climate-relevant capacities at the local level which suggests a need to strengthen climate capacities. Moreover, it has been implicated that maintaining the landscapes, which provide landscape production functions that build the well-being and adaptive capacity of farmers, could help to sustain farmers' livelihood and build their adaptive capacity to withstand the challenges of climate change.

Teaching and Learning Guide for: Sustainable Development and Environmental Justice in African Cities

Climate change and variability have significantly impacted smallholder and subsistence farmers in Ethiopia. The effectiveness of adaptation measures largely depends on how farmers perceive climate change and variability. Hence, understanding their perception and comparing it with long-term trends is crucial for designing appropriate responses. Thus, this study examined climate parameters and smallholder farmers’ awareness of climate change in the Jemma sub-basin. A total of 366 households were randomly selected from highland, midland, and lowland kebeles. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected through household surveys, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. Grided monthly precipitation and temperature data were obtained from the Ethiopian Meteorology Institute. The Mann–Kendall test and Sen’s slope estimator were employed to examine the time series trends of rainfall and temperature. The MK trend test results revealed that yearly and summer season rainfall exhibit a non-significant increasing trend, while spring season rainfall shows a decreasing trend. The coefficient of variance shows that the monthly and spring season rainfall shows the highest variability (CV&gt;30 %), while the annual rainfall shows less variability. Similarly, the mean annual, maximum, and minimum temperatures show an increasing trend. Consequently, about 83.47 % of highland, 91.54 % of midland, and 100 % of lowland respondents feel the temperature rise, and 44.62 %, 66.2 %, and 100 % of highland, midland, and lowland respondents recognized the decreasing rainfall trend, respectively. The analysis result reveals that age, gender, access to climate information, education, farming experience, and market access significantly influence perceptions of temperature and rainfall trends. Therefore, farmers’ perceptions should be integrated into meteorological data analysis, and policymakers should consider these disparities when developing climate adaptation strategies.

Conservation tillage implements and systems for smallholder farmers in semi-arid Ethiopia

In the past decade, to improve crop production and productivity, Ethiopia has embarked on an ambitious irrigation farming expansion program and has introduced new large- and small-scale irrigation initiatives. However, in Ethiopia, poverty remains a challenge, and crop productivity per unit area of land is very low. Literature on the technical efficiency (TE) of large-scale and small-scale irrigation user farmers as compared to the non-user farmers in Ethiopia is also limited. Investigating smallholder farmers’ TE level and its principal determinants is very important to increase crop production and productivity and to improve smallholder farmers’ livelihood and food security. Using 1026 household-level cross-section data, this study adopts a technology flexible stochastic frontier approach to examine agricultural TE of large-scale irrigation users, small-scale irrigation users and non-user farmers in Ethiopia. The results indicate that, due to poor extension services and old-style agronomic practices, the mean TE of farmers is very low (44.33%), implying that there is a wider room for increasing crop production in the study areas through increasing the TE of smallholder farmers without additional investment in novel agricultural technologies. Results also show that large-scale irrigation user farmers (21.05%) are less technically efficient than small-scale irrigation user farmers (60.29%). However, improving irrigation infrastructure shifts the frontier up and has a positive impact on smallholder farmers’ output.

Smallholder farmers in Ethiopia are increasingly exposed to climate variability, making the adoption of effective adaptation strategies essential for sustaining rural livelihoods. This study explores climate change adaptation practices and their determinants in Duna Woreda, Central Ethiopia, using survey data collected from 400 farm households. Descriptive statistics were employed to identify major adaptation strategies, while a multivariate probit (MVP) model was used to examine the socioeconomic and institutional factors influencing adoption decisions. In addition, principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to analyze farmers’ perceptions of adaptation strategies. The results reveal that soil and water conservation, crop diversification, small‐scale irrigation, and crop rotation are the most widely implemented adaptation strategies in the study area. The MVP model indicates that education level, household size, farm size, access to extension services, availability of agricultural inputs, credit use, and annual income significantly increase the likelihood of adopting adaptation practices. Conversely, a greater distance from markets negatively affects adoption decisions. PCA results show mixed perceptions among farmers: while many recognize the role of adaptation strategies in reducing crop losses and improving soil health, others perceive limited economic benefits. The findings highlight the need for targeted policy interventions that strengthen farmer education, improve extension services, and enhance access to credit and agricultural inputs. Such measures can significantly improve the adoption of climate adaptation strategies and strengthen the resilience of smallholder farming systems in climate‐vulnerable regions.

Climate change threatens food security and nutrition for nearly a billion people, especially smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa, including Ethiopia. This study examines climate trends, farmers’ perceptions, and factors influencing these perceptions to guide adaptation strategies. Temperature and rainfall trends were analyzed using the Modified Mann-Kendall test and Sen’s Slope Estimator, while data from 646 households were analyzed through descriptive statistics and a probit model. The results show a consistent rise in mean temperatures in all three agroecological zones, with increases of 0.023°C, 0.020°C, and 0.024°C in the highland, lowland, and midland regions, respectively. Rainfall also increased by 2.37 mm yr−¹, 2.18 mm yr−¹, and 1.52 mm yr−¹ in these regions. Farmers report rising temperatures, greater daily fluctuations, more frequent heatwaves, and irregular rainfall patterns over the past 30 years. Awareness of climate change is influenced by socio-demographic and farm-related factors, including farming experience, land ownership, ICT access, and proximity to markets. The study emphasises the importance of improving climate information dissemination, strengthening ICT infrastructure, and enhancing agricultural extension services to align farmers’ perceptions with scientific data. Key recommendations include expanding access to reliable climate information, integrating local knowledge with scientific data, and enhancing real-time weather monitoring. These actions will help strengthen farmers’ resilience and promote sustainable agricultural practices. Highlights Climate change presents significant threats worldwide, with a pronounced impact on Sub-Saharan African nations like Ethiopia. The study thoroughly investigates climatic trends, focusing on smallholder farmers’ perceptions of climate change. Farmers’ perceptions of climate change: – offering insights into their understanding and interpretation of environmental shifts. The research explores the implications of farmers’ perceptions for adaptation strategies, aiming to inform effective responses to climate change. Given the specific challenges faced by smallholder farmers in Ethiopia and similar regions, the study's findings hold particular significance for crafting tailored adaptation measures.

Background: Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is an approach to increase farmers’ income and agricultural production by adapting to the changing climatic conditions. Ethiopian agriculture is predominantly rain-fed and vulnerable to variability in rainfall and temperature. Adoption of CSA practices and technologies among smallholder farmers remains low. Methods: This study was carried out in Ambo district, Oromia region, Ethiopia to assess the challenges faced by smallholder farmers in the adoption of CSA. A semi-structured interview schedule was used to collect data from 156 respondents from 3 rural villages. Result: Crop residue management and mulching faced stiff competition with livestock feeding since crop residues are allowed for grazing by livestock. Hence, it is suggested to promote the cultivation of fodder grasses. Minimum tillage was practiced by only a few farmers in the study area. The farmers’ belief on minimum tillage should be changed through proper education, training and result demonstration on the advantages of minimum tillage. The awareness of integrated nutrient and soil management should be enhanced by creating awareness of the benefits of soil testing.

BackgroundThe purpose of this review was to provide and synthesize validated and up-to-date scientific knowledge on the benefits and drawbacks of crossbreeding as a basis for goat production by Ethiopian smallholder farmers. The majority of Ethiopian smallholder farmers and pastoralists rely on goat production for their livelihoods. Ethiopia's goat population is extensive, with eight genetically recognized indigenous goat breeds. These breeds, on the other hand, do not produce exceptionally well, and their contributions to smallholder farmers and the national economy fall far short of their complete output potential.Main body of the abstractIn this regard, during the past many years, numerous goat productivity development programs in Ethiopia have collaborated to design and implement crossbreeding as a basis for goat production by smallholder farmers. Crossing indigenous goats (i.e., Afar and Somali goats) with exotic goat breeds, including Saanen, Anglo-Nubian, Toggenburg, and Boer goats, was done primarily to increase the output of indigenous goats. This crossbreeding plan, however, unsuccessful due to a number of factors, including a lack of baseline production data, poorly managed institutional synergies, and little or no consideration of smallholder farmers' needs, opinions, active participation, decisions, and local practices. In addition, insufficient and poor-quality feeds and forages, the termination and weakness of goat genetic improvement projects, disease and parasite incidence, poor veterinary services, and a lack of infrastructure are all major reasons for crossbreeding failure as a basis for goat production by Ethiopian smallholder farmers.Short conclusionCrossbreeding as a basis for goat production by Ethiopian smallholder farmers was made possible by the presence of vast indigenous goat breeds with diverse performance parameters throughout the country, as well as the engagement of both governmental and non-governmental groups. In contrast, a lack of baseline production data, a lack of well-organized institutional synergies, and little or no consideration of smallholder farmers' needs, decisions, participation, and local practices were the main roadblocks to planned crossbreeding as a basis for goat production by smallholder farmers in Ethiopia.

Reducing Crop Yield Volatility Among Smallholder Farmers

BackgroundEthiopia has the largest cattle population in Africa. The vast majority of the national herd is of indigenous zebu cattle maintained in rural areas under extensive husbandry systems. However, in response to the increasing demand for milk products and the Ethiopian government's efforts to improve productivity in the livestock sector, recent years have seen increased intensive husbandry settings holding exotic and cross breeds. This drive for increased productivity is however threatened by animal diseases that thrive under intensive settings, such as bovine tuberculosis (BTB), a disease that is already endemic in Ethiopia.Methodology/Principal FindingsAn extensive study was conducted to: estimate the prevalence of BTB in intensive dairy farms in central Ethiopia; identify associated risk factors; and characterize circulating strains of the causative agent, Mycobacterium bovis. The comparative intradermal tuberculin test (CIDT), questionnaire survey, post-mortem examination, bacteriology, and molecular typing were used to get a better understanding of the BTB prevalence among dairy farms in the study area. Based on the CIDT, our findings showed that around 30% of 2956 tested dairy cattle from 88 herds were positive for BTB while the herd prevalence was over 50%. Post-mortem examination revealed gross tuberculous lesions in 34/36 CIDT positive cattle and acid-fast bacilli were recovered from 31 animals. Molecular typing identified all isolates as M. bovis and further characterization by spoligotyping and MIRU-VNTR typing indicated low strain diversity within the study area.Conclusions/SignificanceThis study showed an overall BTB herd prevalence of 50% in intensive dairy farms in Addis Ababa and surroundings, signalling an urgent need for intervention to control the disease and prevent zoonotic transmission of M. bovis to human populations consuming dairy products coming from these farms. It is suggested that government and policy makers should work together with stakeholders to design methods for the control of BTB in intensive farms in Ethiopia.