Disposal of Carbon Dioxide in Depleted Natural Gas Reservoirs

Integrated assessment model simulations are often cited when recommending  carbon capture and storage (CCS) as an important component of decarbonization for the power industry. Here, we use a simplified setting to analyze the economic sensitivity of post-combustion fossil-fuel CCS to a set of parameters including fuel costs, electricity prices, and subsidies. We formulate the model to represent coal and natural gas power plants fitted with CCS. We then ask what level of subsidies are necessary to make CCS profitable for the operator. Our results indicate that: (1) With current US subsidies and under most market conditions, CCS is much more profitable when injected carbon dioxide is used for enhanced oil recovery than for geologic storage. For this reason, CCS is likely to continue to be used for enhanced oil recovery and so will increase system-wide emissions because the combustion of the oil produced emits more carbon dioxide than is injected to produce the oil. (2) CCS subsidies can drop the marginal cost of electricity generation to near zero, making CCS fossil fuel electricity competitive with renewables in the power market, even as these power plants continue to emit a portion of their carbon dioxide. (3) With CCS subsidies, coal-fired power production can become more profitable than natural gas power because coal produces more carbon dioxide and hence harvests more subsidies. To be profitable, natural gas power plants require higher tax subsidies than coal, and their cash flow is more sensitive to changes in the price of power, which disadvantages natural gas plants when coupled to CCS. (4) In the US, subsidies are provided per ton of carbon dioxide stored rather than per ton of carbon dioxide kept out of the atmosphere. Our calculations demonstrate how the effective subsidy per ton of emissions avoided is more than the subsidy paid per ton of carbon dioxide captured unless the grid is completely decarbonized, because of the energy penalty of CCS. (5) The value of natural gas CCS for reducing emissions diminishes as the carbon intensity of the local power grid increases. We recommend that these insights be used in integrated assessment models such that these models more accurately represent the influence of market dynamics and provide better insights for reducing emissions. 

To model a variety of potential operating conditions in pure carbon dioxide (CO2) injection wells we performed a multiphase transient well flow simulation study. A thermal reservoir simulator was also used to estimate the extent of reservoir cooling and the variation of injectivity index to be expected from injection of cold CO2. Depleted gas reservoirs are potentially attractive targets for CO2 but their low pore pressure results in low bottomhole injection pressure and potentially two-phase flow regime in the wellbore. Other authors have noted the possible implications of this condition; however, none have addressed the issue using transient flow simulation. A vertical wellbore model was built in a multi-phase transient flow simulator, assuming representative Southern North Sea conditions. To investigate wellbore profiles of pressure, temperature and CO2 liquid hold-up, parametric as well as thermal reservoir simulations were performed. The latter simulations integrated the bottomhole conditions observed in the wellbore model. Results show that pure CO2 injected at the wellhead may vaporize or condense as it travels down the tubing, experiencing continuous changes in pressure and temperature as dictated by its change in enthalpy. However, sudden vaporization or condensation is not predicted by the simulator. Two-phase flow cases resulted in stable injection conditions. Well injectivity index varied significantly with injection fluid temperature and pressure, but the extent of reservoir cooling away from the wellbore was limited. This suggests that onerous processing to avoid a two-phase flow regime in CO2 injection wells, such as pre-injection heating or downhole choking may not be necessary at the injection start-up into a depleted gas reservoir.

To prevent recovered carbon dioxide from entering the atmosphere, it must be disposed of or stored. In this chapter the global potential for storing carbon dioxide underground is discussed together with the associated costs. Special attention is given to the injection of carbon dioxide into former hydrocarbon reservoirs and in aquifers.The potential storage capacity in hydrocarbon reservoirs is calculated on the assumption that all the space left after extraction of the natural gas or oil can be used for carbon dioxide storage. The density of the stored carbon dioxide depends on the depth of the reservoir and local geothermal and pressure gradients. The potential storage capacity in natural gas fields is estimated at 600 to 1500 Gtonnes carbon dioxide and in oil fields at 200 to 400 Gtonnes carbon dioxide.The potential storage capacity in aquifers is calculated on the assumption that injected carbon dioxide replaces water. The capacity will also depend on whether a structural trap is required or not. If a structural trap is required the storage capacity in aquifers is about 200 Gtonne of carbon dioxide. If a structural trap is not required the storage potential might be up to several tens of thousands.The carbon dioxide to be stored must be injected into an underground reservoir through a well. The maximum flow rate that can be applied at the well depends on the permeability of the matrix, the thickness of the reservoir, and the maximum permissible overpressure in the reservoir. It is calculated that the flow rate may vary from 2 to 20 of mN 3 carbon dioxide per second (340–3400 tonnes per day).The pressure at the well-bottom is roughly the sum of the well-head pressure and the pressure caused by the weight of the carbon dioxide column. At regular hydrostatic pressure gradients, it will often not be necessary to compress the carbon dioxide to higher pressures than the transport pressure, which is assumed to be 8000 kPa.The costs of carbon dioxide storage depend on the depth, the size and location of the reservoir and the flow rate at the well. Storage costs in onshore aquifers are calculated to be typically between 2 and 8 US$ per tonne of carbon dioxide. In a large onshore natural gas field the storage costs will be 0.5 to 3 US$ per tonne of carbon dioxide. Storage costs for offshore reservoirs are typically 50% higher. If additional compression is required at the well-head the costs are increased by up to 0.5 US$ per tonne carbon dioxide stored.

The first in the series of Azuberths Game Changer publications “Synergy of the Conventional Crude Oil and the FT-GTL Processes for Sustainable Synfuels Production: The Game Changer Approach-Phase One Category” a.k.a. (DOI: 10.23880/ppej16000330) is targeted at reducing 80 per cent CO2 emissions from the internal combustion engines by upgrading from the conventional crude oil refinery products to the synthetic fuels products (ultra-low-carbon fuels). This paper will focus on the complete elimination of the remaining 20 per cent CO2 emissions (i.e. to achieve zero- CO2 emissions) in transportation and power generating internal combustion engines as well as in the other centralized emissions/emitters such as petroleum industry flare lines, industrial process and big technology industries scrubber flue gas, et cetera. This invention stems from similar biblical quote {Isaiah 6:8-New International Version (NIV)} which states, and then I heard the voice of the Lord saying, “Whom shall I send? And who will go for us?” And I (Isaiah) said, “Here am I. Send me!” Laterally, in this case I (Azunna) said, “Here am I. Please use me”. Hence the aftermath, IJN-Universal Emissions Liquefiers is a plug and play units for all categories of pollutants discharge into the atmosphere. The work is motivated by the scientific facts that (i) The release of CO2 from automotive exhaust effluents, industry vents and flue gas emissions into the atmosphere contributes to greenhouse gas (GHG) accumulation causing global warming hence climate changes issues such as flooding of coastlines/sea-rising, melting of the glaciers, disrupted weather patterns, bushburning/wildfire, depletion of Ozone layer, smog and air pollution, acidification of water bodies, runaway greenhouse effect, etc. (ii) Every gas stream (e.g., flue gas) can be made liquid by e.g. a series of compression, cooling and expansion steps and once in liquid form, the components of the gas can be separated in a distillation column. (iii) Captured liquefied gases can be put to various uses, especially carbon dioxide (CO2 ), which can be used for the production of renewable energy via Synfuels such as the e-fuel/solar fuel. The natural atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon, and only about 0.1% natural greenhouse gases, which include carbon dioxide, organic chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and many others. Although a small amount, these greenhouse gases make a big difference - they are the gases that allow the greenhouse effect to exist by trapping in some heat that would otherwise escape to space. Carbon dioxide, although not the most potent of the greenhouse gases, is the most important because of the huge volumes emitted into the air by combustion of fossil fuels (e.g., gasoline, diesel, fuel oil, coal, natural gas). In general, the major contributors to the greenhouse effect are: Burning of fossil fuels in automobiles, deforestation, farming processing and manufacturing factories, industrial waste and landfills, increasing animal and human respiration, etc. The increased number of factories, automobiles, and population increases the amount of these gases in the atmosphere. The greenhouse gases never let the radiations to escape from the earth atmosphere and increase the surface temperature of the earth. This then leads to global warming. The petroleum industry well sites vent/flare gases (methane, ethane, propane, butanes, H2 O (g), O2 , N2 , etc.). Internal combustion engines (automobiles-cars, vehicles, ships, trains, planes, etc.) release exhaust effluents (containing H2 O (g), CO2 , O2 , and N2 ); steam generators in large power plants and the process furnaces in large refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants, and incinerators burn considerable amounts of fossil fuels and therefore emit large amounts of flue gas to the ambient atmosphere. In general, Flue gas is the gas exiting to the atmosphere via a “flue”, which is a pipe or channel for conveying exhaust gases from a fireplace, oven, furnace, boiler or steam generator. The emitted flue gas contains carbon dioxide CO2 , carbon monoxide CO, sulphur oxide SO2 , nitrous oxide NO and particulates. Furthermore, GTL plants produce CO2 , H2 O and waste heat, while both pyrolysis and gasification plant generate gaseous products consisting of (a mixture of non-condensable gases such as H2 , CO2 , and CO and light hydrocarbons “e.g. CH4 ” at room temperature, as well as H2 O (g), O2 and complex hydrocarbons e.g. C2 H2 , C2 H4 , etc.). In general, all combustion is as a result of air-fuel mixture burning (i.e. air or oxygen mixing directly with biomass/ coal or with liquid/gaseous hydrocarbon inside internal combustion engines), releases carbon dioxide and steam (H2 O) back into the atmosphere as well as producing energy for work. Specifically, during combustion, carbon combines with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide (CO2 ). The principal emission from transportation and power generating internal combustion engines is carbon dioxide (CO2 ). The level of CO2 emission is linked to the amount of fuel consumed and the type of fuel used as well as the individual engine’s operating characteristics. For instance, diesel-powered engines have higher emission than petrol/gasoline-powered engines. Although emphasis is places more on CO2 , this investigation is ultimately concerned with the real-time liquefaction of all the components of gaseous release/emissions -related to air pollution/health problem. It is believed that the mortality rate from air pollution is eight times larger than the mortality caused by car accidents each year. Pollutants with the strongest evidence for public health concern include particulate matter (PM), ozone (O3 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) and sulphur dioxide (SO2 ). All the exhaust effluents gases/flue gas and vent/flare gases are captured by liquefying them and then put to various uses, to achieve “Net zero” emissions. Fundamentally, the objective of the present invention is to develop a compact device (Universal Emissions Liquefiers) that can be retro-fitted onto the exhaust tailpipe-end of the internal combustion engines (diesel-powered, gasoline-powered, and hybrid automobiles-cars, vehicles, SUV’s, trucks, motor cycles, tri-cycles, portable electric generators, sea and cargo ships/ boats, trains, planes, rockets, etc.) and outlet of industrial machines that release flue gases through exhaust/scrubber channels, as well as crude oil, refined products storage tanks that vent greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, coal processing units/ plants and turn them into liquid { CO2 (l), N2 (l), O2 (l), etc.} or powdered components or chemically transform them in realtime with selective catalysts to any other specific compound, e.g. treating CO2 with hydrogen gas (H2) can produce methanol (CH3 OH), methane (CH4 ), or formic acid (HCOOH), while reaction of CO2 with alkali (e.g. NaOH) can give carbonates (NaHCO3 ) and bicarbonates (Na2 CO3 ). Nitrogen (N2 ) to ammonia (NH3 ) or Hydrazine (N2 H4 ), and molecular oxygen (O2 ) to hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ), et cetera. Alternatively, in new automobiles designs, the universal emissions liquefiers’ device can be directly net-worked on the floor alongside the catalytic converters and may eliminate the need for muffler/silencer/resonator. This is achieved by the application of any of the five main gas capture/separation technologies: Liquid absorption, Solid adsorption, Membrane separation (with and without solvent- organic or inorganic), Cryogenic refrigeration/distillation, and Electrochemical pH-swing separation or their combination to selectively trap and liquefy the individual pollutants. According to the fact from CarBuster, almost 0.009 metric tons of carbon dioxide is produced from every gallon of gasoline burned, which means that the average car user makes about 11.7 tons of carbon dioxide each year from their cars alone

Geologic sequestration by carbon dioxide injection is the promising method to mitigate the global climate change due to excess carbon dioxide emission to the atmosphere. At Iwanohara in Nagaoka, onshore Japan, approx 10,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide was injected in the aquifer zone during the period of July 2003 to January 2005 by RITE/METI. In order to monitor injected carbon dioxide, 4D seismic survey was conducted in 2003 and 2005, which was the first 4D seismic monitoring for the carbon dioxide injection to the onshore saline aquifer in the world. 4D anomaly zone caused by possible carbon dioxide saturation effects was identified and mapped in the aquifer zone by several methods. Neural network clustering method was to reduce data redundancy and remnant non-repeatable noises inherent to the onshore 4D seismic data and it turned out to have improved the conventional visual inspection of simple math difference of 3D seismic volume. 3D data were evaluated by well synthetics and impedance inversion to estimate physical parameters and were implemented to both clustering analysis and estimates of physical parameter distribution. Identified 4D anomaly has a spatial correlation with the higher permeability distribution map on the injection zone estimated by baseline 3D volume.

International perspectives and the results of carbon dioxide capture disposal and utilisation studies

Coal, oil, and gas production emits billions of tons of carbon dioxide (CO₂) into the atmosphere every year. The effect of carbon dioxide on the atmosphere plays an essential role in the context of climate change and global warming. The planet Earth is on the verge of destruction due to the greenhouse effect. Rising CO₂ levels in the atmosphere pose a significant challenge with far-reaching impacts on the environment and society. The greenhouse effect is the process by which the temperature of the Earth’s surface increases due to greenhouse gases. Since the beginning of the industrial era in 1850, the countries with the highest carbon dioxide emissions have been the United States, followed by Russia and China. In the 2019 national greenhouse gas inventory of the Republic of Armenia, carbon dioxide emissions were the most significant, accounting for 55.7% of total emissions. In 2019, a deviation of +1.5°C from the average annual temperature of 1961-1990 was recorded. Thus, despite Armenia’s relatively small share (0.02%) of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, the country actively participates in international efforts to combat climate change. Ածխի, նավթի և գազի արդյունահանումը տարեկան միլիարդավոր տոննա ածխաթթու գազ (CO ) է արտանետում մթնոլորտ: Ածխաթթու գազի ազդեցությունը մթնոլորտի վրա կարևոր դեր է խաղում՝ կլիմայի փոփոխության և գլոբալ տաքացման համատեքստում։ Ջերմոցային էֆեկտի պատճառով Երկիր մոլորակը կանգնած է կործանման եզրին։ Ջերմոցային էֆեկտը այն գործընթացն է, որով Երկրի մակերևույթի ջերմաստիճանը բարձրանում է ջերմոցային գազերի պատճառով: 1850 թվականից, այսինքն՝ արդյունաբերական դարաշրջանի սկզբից ի վեր, ածխաթթու գազի ամենամեծ քանակությունը արտանետել են մի քանի երկիր երկրներ, որոնցից միշտ առաջատար է եղել ԱՄՆ-ը, որին հաջորդում է Ռուսաստանը, իսկ հետո՝ Չինաստանը: Հայաստանի Հանրապետության 2019 թ. ջերմոցային գազերի ազգային կադաստրում գերակշռում են ածխածնի երկօքսիդի արտանետումները, որի մասնաբաժինը ընդհանուր արտանետումներում կազմել է 55.7%: 2019 թվականին գրանցվել է +1.5°C շեղում 1961-1990 թվականների միջին տարեկան ջերմաստիճանից: Coal, oil, and gas production emits billions of tons of carbon dioxide (CO₂) into the atmosphere every year. The effect of carbon dioxide on the atmosphere plays an essential role in the context of climate change and global warming. The planet Earth is on the verge of destruction due to the greenhouse effect. Rising CO₂ levels in the atmosphere pose a significant challenge with far-reaching impacts on the environment and society. The greenhouse effect is the process by which the temperature of the Earth’s surface increases due to greenhouse gases. Since the beginning of the industrial era in 1850, the countries with the highest carbon dioxide emissions have been the United States, followed by Russia and China. In the 2019 national greenhouse gas inventory of the Republic of Armenia, carbon dioxide emissions were the most significant, accounting for 55.7% of total emissions. In 2019, a deviation of +1.5°C from the average annual temperature of 1961-1990 was recorded. Thus, despite Armenia’s relatively small share (0.02%) of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, the country actively participates in international efforts to combat climate change.

ABSTRACT: In this paper we describe a study focused on modeling the dynamic wellbore behavior and assessing completion and near-wellbore damage in the context of carbon dioxide (CO2) injection to depleted gas reservoirs. The results of the multiphase flow simulator in terms of pressure and temperature distributions along the well for various timesteps have been used as boundary conditions of the dynamic reservoir simulator. The reservoir model considers a near-wellbore region fully saturated in CO2. Thermal-hydraulic-mechanical (THM) coupling for completion and surrounding rock has been enabled, linking the reservoir simulator to the geomechanical simulator. A simple staggered coupling scheme [also called one-way coupling (OWC)] has been used to describe the behavior of the host rock and completion and evaluate potential damage during simulated injection scenarios. The results enable us to investigate the influence of various parameters, with the objective of supporting the design of carbon capture and storage (CCS) injection wells and materials, plus the definition of procedures that can reduce the risks associated with thermal shock. 1. INTRODUCTION CO2 sequestration has emerged as a promising strategy to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and play a part in climate change control by safely injecting significant quantities of CO2 deep underground, while ensuring permanent containment integrity. During injection, temperature and pressure changes within the wellbore and its vicinity impact completion equipment, tubulars including casing and liners, annular fluids, cement, and subsurface formations. Extreme temperature variations may also alter rock properties and fluid behavior. These thermal and pressure variations can affect injectivity and will induce mechanical stresses within the well system, cement, and surrounding rocks; Oldenburg (2006), Pekot et al. (2011). Understanding these effects is crucial for assessing and ensuring the integrity of the well, host rock, and seals, while minimizing or eliminating formation damage and optimizing CO2 injection strategies. For seabed temperatures ranging between 5 to 15°C the CO2 is in liquid phase and denser. Transportation of liquid CO2 is a favored option for many offshore projects. Similar considerations may apply to the well completion, where the injection of a denser fluid reduces tubing head pressure and tubing size requirements.

Total is committed to reducing the impact of its activities on the environment, especially its greenhouse gas emissions. The group's priorities are to improve the energy efficiency of its industrial facilities, to reduce the flaring of associated gas, to invest in the development of complementary energy sources (biomass, solar, clean coal) and to participate in many operational and R&D programs on CO2 capture, transport and geological storage. It has been involved in CO2 injection and geological storage for over 15 years, in Canada (Weyburn oil field) for EOR and Norway (Sleipner, Snohvit) for aquifer storage. In 20 06, the company decided to invest 60 million euros to experiment CO2 capture, transportation and injection in a deplet ed gas reservoir. The pilot in the Lacq basin, SW France, 800 km from Paris, has been on stream since January 2010. The experimental plant is unique in several respects; by its size (unprecedented worldwide), capturing carbon through a 30-MWth oxy-combustion gas boiler, by the choice of a depleted deep gas reservoir (unprecedented in Europe) located onshore 5 kilometers south of the agglomeration of Pau (around 140,000 inhabitants) and by its scope, operating a fully integrated industrial chain (comprising extraction, treatment, combustion of natural gas, High-pressure steam production, CO2 capture, transport and injection) on the SEVESO-classified Lacq industrial complex. The pilot installations were designed by the Total E&P Research and Development team and are operated by Total Exploration Production France. The project reflects Total's commitment to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. A dedicated plan was devised with the French authorities to monitor the integrity of the injection site and confirm that the CO2 remains trapped in its host reservoir. Its main objectives are to check that no CO2 is leaking upward out of the reservoir though either the injection well or the cap rock, so as to avoid any impact on the groundwater and surface water resources, the biosphere (Fauna and Flora) or human health. This paper details the main technical features of the pilot and the monitoring program spanning subsurface and surface aspects, together with the operational feedback after more than two and half years of operation. Based on the pilot's performance to date, Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) appears to hold promise for use on an industrial scale. This industrial operation will capture and trap around 90,000 tonnes of Carbon dioxide over a 3 and half year period. This quantity is equivalent to the exhaust emissions of 30,000 cars over a 2-year period.

The thermodynamics of direct air capture of carbon dioxide

Lacq-Rousse Industrial CCS Reference Project: Description and Operational Feedback after two and Half Years of Operation

ABSTRACTAs the reality of a carbon-neutral market and future takes form, all available resources will need to be focused upon removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. In this regard, no alternative is more promising today than nature-based solutions. Restoration of native ecosystems and the use of management concepts such as adaptive multi-paddock (AMP) grazing for ranchland have the potential to reliably store vast amounts of carbon in near-surface soil at very low cost. If only half of the existing US grazing lands is managed differently than now, these healthy soils could store from 10 to 23 percent of US carbon dioxide emissions every year. Moreover, healthy soils will significantly enhance the economic profitability and drought and flood resilience of ranches. To date, no trading system meets the needs and requirements of the private landowners that control the land that has the ability to sequester these immense amounts of carbon dioxide. The Soil Value Exchange (SVX) is designed to support landowners as they manage their property to promote healthy soils and soil carbon storage by (1) implementing a soil-carbon trading system based on robust soil carbon measurements that works for land owners and carbon credit buyers, (2) providing grants for land management consultant support, and (3) providing grants to support soil carbon measurements. SVX has established collaborations with expert land consultancy organizations and has a goal of enabling the storage of 10 million metric tons of carbon dioxide each year in 2024 and 100 million metric tons of carbon dioxide credits each year in 2028.

The Paris Agreement’s goal of limiting global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius (°C), and ideally 1.5°C, above pre-industrial levels, places significant emphasis on carbon dioxide removal (CDR) technologies. However, the global landscape for CDR deployment remains uneven, with significant disparities in technological capacity, economic readiness, and regional ambition. This study investigates how limited access to CDR technologies could exacerbate global economic inequality under a 1.5°C pathway. Using the Global Change Analysis Model (GCAM v6.0), six scenarios – ranging from unrestricted CDR availability to constrained deployment – are evaluated. Our findings reveal that constrained CDR availability significantly increases median global carbon prices, rising from US$588 per ton of carbon dioxide (tCO2) in the full CDR portfolio scenario to $937/tCO2 by 2055 in the most restrictive scenario. By 2100, some regions will face prices exceeding $3,000/tCO2, underscoring stark regional inequalities. These elevated carbon prices could deepen economic disparities, particularly in developing nations and fossil fuel-dependent economies. Furthermore, constrained CDR availability could also amplify inequalities in energy and food security, disproportionately affecting poorer regions. The study underscores the need for equitable CDR access to support a just global transition to a low-carbon future, offering valuable insights for policymakers designing more equitable climate strategies.

CO2 storage in depleted gas reservoirs: A study on the effect of residual gas saturation

Enhanced rock weathering (ERW) – the introduction of finely crushed alkaline minerals into agricultural soils – could in principle remove billions of tonnes of carbon dioxide annually at the global scale. However, questions remain over processes leading to the formation and persistence of soil inorganic carbon via ERW, especially amidst the complexity of conditions across Earth’s cropland soil. Here we present a new model, a COUpled Soil Inorganic-organic carbon model for eNhanced wEathering (COUSINE), which mechanistically simulates carbon dioxide removal (CDR) via ERW across diverse climate and soil conditions. COUSINE considers the dynamics of 20 chemical species in the soil system that are driven by soil CO2 dynamics, parent material, soil cation exchange, secondary mineral formation, strong and weak acid weathering, plant and microbial activity, and leaching of elements from the soil system. Principles of mass and charge conservation are maintained across all reactions. We applied the model to various climate and soil conditions – from fertile temperate Alfisols to highly and extremely weathering subtropical Ultisols and tropical Oxisols – to examine the key controls over weathering rates and CDR rates. Our simulations reveal three key limitations in regulating the timing and potential of carbon sequestration under ERW. First, organic acids and clay colloids in fertile soils retain cations in environments with low base saturation and relatively high CEC, creating strong cation sinks, thus delaying increased pore water alkalinity in response to alkaline mineral additions. This lag can be substantial, lasting for over 80 years in Alfisols with high CEC capacity to less than 20 years in Oxisols, which lack cation exchanging organic matter and minerals. Second, competition between carbonic acid and other sources of protons can limit the efficacy of CDR. This is apparent in net nitrogen acidity from nitrogen fertilizer applications, which results in strong acid weathering. Third, climate conditions related to excess moisture and soil temperature control reaction kinetics, which affects the rate at which cations are released into solution and can thus participate in bicarbonate formation. COUSINE informs matrix simulations across soil properties, climates, and application rates, thereby elucidating optimal conditions for maximizing soil carbon sequestration via ERW, providing a new tool for CDR verification