DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING AND PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING IN SOCIAL SCIENCES AND NATURAL SCIENCES LESSONS

The view that social sciences are very different from other forms of science is common, hence the need to develop special methods. In section 1.1 it is argued that, although there are some important differences, modern developments both in social sciences and in what are called here natural sciences tend to reduce them, pointing towards a common methodological framework. This idea serves as an introduction to further sections where the scientific method for the social sciences is outlined, and then is shown the role that models play in it. Natural and social sciences: the hypothesis of convergency Traditionally, social sciences have been considered a very special form of science, different from biology, physics or natural sciences in general. Many arguments are put forward to support this distinction. By contrast, social phenomena are considered to be ever:changing. It may well be that in natural sciences theories themselves change and old ones are replaced by new ones, but once adopted, they are considered as permanent. If social phenomena are ever:changing, social theories may be valid only for a short period of time; that is, they have a particular historical reference. Because it is generally assumed that natural phenomena are permanent, theories that successfully explain their past behaviour have strong predictive power. In social sciences, even if a theory has been very successful in explaining a phenomenon that occurred in the past, it can only provide predictions as long as the historical conditions prevail. Another difference that is commonly pointed out is that natural phenomena can be reproduced in the controlled conditions of a laboratory, which isolates them from unwanted externalities. The use of experiments has become a key element in the creation of knowledge in natural sciences.

That there are differences between social and natural phenomena is hardly a matter of dispute, and there is little question that these differences result from role of subjective states such as purposes, attitudes, and beliefs in human affairs. The important question is not whether these differences exist but whether they lead to fundamental differences between natural and social sciences. As Bhaskar notes, this is primal question of philosophy of social and it has dominated social sciences since their birth.1 The ardently contested issues raised by question of relationship between social and natural sciences have permeated social-scientific disciplines in disputes that have decisively shaped their development.2 Perhaps it is only a slight exaggeration to suggest that differences between various schools within social sciences are reducible to different ways these issues have been resolved. The framework for discussion of these issues was in large measure work of Max Weber. This is not surprising from a thinker labeled the last universal genius of social sciences3 by an admirer and the greatest social scientist of our century4 by one of his harshest critics. Although Weber's interest in methodological issues was secondary and his writings on subject usually polemical, erudition and insight with which he analyzed character of social sciences have commanded continuing attention. This attention has focused primarily on Weber's insistence that susceptibility of social phenomena to interpretative understanding radically distinguishes them from natural phenomena and creates a unique task for social sciences. This alone, however, says nothing about relationship between social and natural sciences, and no aspect of Weber's thought has been more controversial or more variously construed than nature of interpretative understanding and its significance for logic of sociocultural inquiry.5

Culturomics was recently introduced as the application of high-throughput data collection and analysis to the study of human culture. Here, we make use of these data by investigating fluctuations in yearly usage frequencies of specific words that describe social and natural phenomena, as derived from books that were published over the course of the past two centuries. We show that the determination of the Hurst parameter by means of fractal analysis provides fundamental insights into the nature of long-range correlations contained in the culturomic trajectories, and by doing so offers new interpretations as to what might be the main driving forces behind the examined phenomena. Quite remarkably, we find that social and natural phenomena are governed by fundamentally different processes. While natural phenomena have properties that are typical for processes with persistent long-range correlations, social phenomena are better described as non-stationary, on–off intermittent or Lévy walk processes.

Studying social phenomena is often assumed to be inherently different from studying natural science phenomena. In psychology, this assumption has led to a division of the field into social and experimental domains. The same kind of division has carried over into ecological psychology, despite the fact that Gibson clearly intended his theory for both social and natural phenomena. In this paper, we argue that the social/natural science dichotomy can be derived from a distinction between hermeneutics and science that is deeply rooted in the atomistic, structuralist ontological tradition. We show that, from a process-based perspective, the central questions of hermeneutics (action of an individual within a context of possible actions), ecological psychology (behavior of an organism in an ecological niche) and physics (motion of a particle in a field) share a similar structure. Building on these ideas, we propose a common, process-based methodology for psychology that integrates field theory with insights from quantum mechanics to accommodate traditionally problematic concepts in natural science such as teleology and values. To demonstrate the feasibility of this approach, empirical findings on the paradigmatic problem of prospective control (such as gaze control in automobile driving in relation to perceptual tuning) are presented.

Effective teaching methods are important in psychiatry. Previous studies have focused on the assessment of students about the effective teaching methods but not on a self-assessment by teachers. Primary objective is to evaluate the teachers' and students' perspectives of effective teaching methods in psychiatry for medical undergraduates. Secondary objectives include assessment of the concordance of each item and exploring innovative teaching methods. A cross-sectional study design used in teachers and medical students from St. John's Medical College, Bangalore (India). A modified teachers and medical students perspectives of effective psychiatry teaching methods were used. Differences in continuous variable assessed with independent sample-test and categorical variables with Chi-square test. The Domain scores were divided into tertiles and the highest and lowest tertiles were analyzed. Both students and teachers had high perspectives on most of the teaching methods. Differences were found in items such as "using multimedia slide effectively," "good sense of humor while teaching," "presentation summarizes the key points," and "presentation links ideas effectively." Role play-based and live/simulated patient-based teachings were reported most frequently by both. Significantly, a higher proportion of the 6th term students and a lesser proportion of teachers were associated with the lowest tertiles for Domain 1, 2, and 3. Significantly, increased number of 8th term students were found in the higher tertiles in Domain 3. These findings have practical implications in identifying the gaps in effective teaching methods by the teachers. Teachers can improve their teaching methods by upgrading their presentation skills, employing new and innovative teaching skills.

<p align="justify">Floods are concurrently natural and social phenomena. Though generally represented as “natural calamity” and described as ‘phenomena of an atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature’<!-- I know it is a citation but EGU abstracts usually have no references (or one/two if really needed). I would keep the Evers et al. (2017) since it’s related to the main take home message -->, floods are strongly dependant on territorial as well as historicized dynamics and negotiations. Moreover, as floods offer aggravated threats in the Anthropocene, marked by unpredictable climatic perturbations, impacting marginalized communities inhabiting vulnerable landscapes, it is imperative to collectively understand human-flood systems to craft sustained solutions. Socio<span>-</span>hydrological contribution on human-floods system, building upon ‘complex web of interactions and feedback mechanisms between hydrological and social processes in settled floodplains’, can be considered a significant advancement from hardcore flood hydrology confined to risk analysis through geomorphological accounting of river systems. With the hydrological science as a background, while the methods of socio<span>-</span>hydrology often rely on quantitative or mathematical modeling approaches to represent the human-floods systems, hydro<span>-</span>social analysis, emanating from political ecology, explores power equations<!-- As hydrlogist I understand equations of the type “y = a*x^b” but I guess you mean something else right? --> in water-society relationship. Though the hydro<span>-</span>social literature mainly dealt with political and social injustices around utilities in urban landscapes for a long time, recently, the thrust has shifted to study stakeholders’ controversies in river basin (co)management and governance. <!-- I’ve removed the part which seemed to me a bit too focused (but feel free to disagree) and added a sentence on the chapter writing. Can this be an experiment of pluralistic research? I guess I am oversimplifying things... so please correct me if I am wrong. --><span>We are in the process of establishing a team of experts from the physical and social sciences who </span><span>are asked</span><span> to provide a synthesis of the existing</span> methodological frameworks on coupled human-flood systems,<span> within the Panta Rhei IAHS initiative. Our work</span> identifies and lays out converging possibilities along multiple paradigms<!-- This sentence is not clear to me... -->, finally proposing a strong case for “pluralistic floods research<!-- Can you add a sentence on what is ment by pluralistic? Is it multidisciplinary? I guess more than that -->” (see Evers et al., 2017<span>, https://doi.org/10.3390/w9120933</span>). We argue that a robust understanding of the human-flood systems imbibing “pluralistic floods research” can meaningfully contribute to ongoing debates on flood risk governance, facilitating spatially-informed and historically-contingent interventions, beyond purely technical approaches.</p>

The day-to-day intellectual consciousness perceives a world of independent phenomena (including social phenomena, as any evening news program will reveal) at stages of rest. In order to bring these same phenomena into dynamic relationship not only with one another but also with the time-scale of their own growth and development, one needs to have organs of perception which can perceive the fluid process of transformation itself. Working with and thinking in metaphors, and consciously striving to perceive the images working in social and other phenomena, can help to develop such organs of perception. This can be done individually and this can be done as individuals in a collective. In doing so, not only can one's own thinking and perceiving grow more aligned to the dimensions of life at work in social and natural phenomena, but so too can language, which can then in turn help others to experience and see the more complete reality working in natural or in this case social phenomena, and to choose, if one so wished, to take responsibility for their future development—the future development of, ultimately, civilization, the Earth, and ourselves.

There is increasing awareness in disaster research about the diverse ways in which disasters affect humanity. The impact of disaster stretches from individuals and households to nation-states. Most disaster discourses focus on the impact, mitigation, management, preparedness and response, but neglecting the issues surrounding the social and natural causes of disaster and their interrelationship. Using content analysis from previous studies, we review some of the discussions on disaster construction as a social or natural phenomenon. The review showed that issues about disaster construction largely centre on natural, social or human and technological factors. It is concluded that the issues triggering the construction of disasters are central to disaster preparedness and mitigation, as they lay the platform upon which decisions are made regarding which policy to put in place to prevent, mitigate or prepare for disasters. Keywords: Disaster, Literature Review, Management, Natural Phenomenon, Social Phenomenon, Mitigation

My main thesis in the paper is that Philippine social scientists need to engage the biological (i.e., genetic and neurological processes shaped by human evolution) dimensions of behavioral and social phenomenon. In developing this thesis, I first broadly clarify the so-called nature-vs.-nurture debate, which pits biological explanations against social and cultural explanations, then proceed to briefly explain contemporary perspectives of evolutionary psychology that recast the nature-vs.-nurture debate. In particular, drawing from examples of recent research and theory, I attempt to show that current theorizing underscores the close interaction between biological and socio-cultural processes, and thus there is no need to construe biological knowledge as antagonistic to socio-cultural theorizing. I cite some examples to show how social science theories are improved when biological factors are incorporated in the theories. I then discuss the implications to Philippine social science, and suggest that a small sector of the social science community should explore how the biological dimensions of social and behavioral phenomenon can improve our theorizing. I further suggest that there is a need to re-examine how Philippine social scientists construe the biological nature of social beings, as this may influence and even constrain how biological knowledge is engaged in theorizing, and to consider some possible constraints within the social science research process in the country.

The Practice of Diversified Teaching Method Research in Applied Undergraduate Colleges and Universities

The article presents a methodological analysis of the neurophysiological concepts of mirror neurons, which offer both explanatory models of the functioning of consciousness and social interaction, and the development of their computer model. The physicalist project for the study of consciousness and social interaction, based on the study of mirror neurons, tries to offer a highly specialized, neurobiological explanation of consciousness and social interaction. The two most priority tasks of this project are: through the most accurate study and description of the functioning of the natural neurobiological system, to offer an explanation of natural high-level (relative to the neurobiological level) mental and social phenomena and phenomena; and based on the neurobiological methodological apparatus, the creation of such an artificial system that, like the natural, neurobiological one, would have a mentality and could enter into social interaction. These tasks are directly related to the reductionist natural science attitude, which assumes the existence of a strict causal connection between the neural organization and the functioning of consciousness and social interaction. The article considers the possibility of combining neurophysiological data on the work of mirror neurons and interpretations in the understanding of consciousness, as well as the possibility of creating their computer model. As a result, arguments are proposed both against the restriction of the methodology of scientific research of social and mental phenomena exclusively by natural scientific practices, and the need to distinguish between low-level neurobiological processes and high-level mental and social phenomena. Using these arguments, the authors hypothesize that the study of the brain is insufficient to create artificial systems endowed with consciousness and capable of entering into social interaction.

<p class="Normal1">English language teaching in virtual environment the selection of effective and appropriate teaching methods according to the characteristics and capabilities of this type of education is one of the problems that teachers face. In reviewing and analyzing teaching methods in virtual education can help teachers to adopt effective teaching methods. This paper using descriptive-analytical method and using library resources, first the terms synonymous with virtual education and the time of origin of this type of education are presented. Then, the definitions of virtual education, methods of providing virtual education and the necessity of virtual education are discussed, and then some effective teaching methods in English virtual education are stated and analyzed and concludes with the advantages and disadvantages of virtual education. Virtual education can be considered as a kind of lifelong learning that focuses on the learner and among the effective and inclusive teaching methods in this type of training that is useful for teaching English can be problem solving, online discussion, small online groups and methods constructivism pointed out. It can be said that by using special methods, it is possible to teach English better through virtual education.</p>

Since the later part of the twentieth century, educational focus has shifted from acquisition of literacy skills only (simple reading, writing, and calculating skills) to inclusion of critical reading and thinking, clear and persuasive communication, and problem-solving skills [1]. In 1996, the Advisory Committee to the National Science Foundation Directorate for Education and Human Resources released a report of the review of undergraduate education in science, mathematics, and engineering titled Shaping the future: new expectations for undergraduate education in science, mathematics, engineering, and technology [2]. The overarching recommendation of this report is that “All students have access to supportive, excellent undergraduate education in science, mathematics engineering and technology, and all students learn these subjects by direct experience with the methods and process of inquiry” [2]. As such, an area of undergraduate science education that has received much attention lately is the type of instructional approach employed. In most academic settings, the typical instructional approach (a.k.a. the traditional approach) comprises lectures where faculty presents facts to students. These lectures are generally accompanied by a number of pretested laboratory experiments with predetermined outcomes. Also, the laboratory experiments are selected to survey a particular set of topics in 3–4-h time periods. A more modern approach, commonly referred to as inquiry-based, includes many variants such as cooperative learning, problem-based learning, discovery-based learning, and others. The commonalities of these approaches lie in their philosophy of active student participation in the entire educational process of teaching and learning [3]. There has been much debate on the strengths and the flaws of these two pedagogical approaches. For example, a strength of the traditional approach is its focus on content coverage and grounding in the fundamentals. However, in the process it inadvertently overlooks the development of the thought process (critical thinking) and professional skills, which are both important for the student’s future endeavors in the chemical industry or academia [3, 4]. On the other hand, the inquiry-based model emphasizes critical thinking and professional skills development. It also offers the opportunity for depth of coverage. However, being faced with the limitations of time and resources, one sacrifice breadth of coverage [5–11]. Finding a balance between this traditional pedagogy and more modern teaching pedagogies is necessary to ensure the complete development of an analytical chemist who is equipped to face the challenges of a twenty-first century global economy [12–14]. At Butler University, we are exploring a pedagogical model that purports to exploit the strengths and serves as a bridge between the traditional and inquiry-based models. In this new approach, we utilize the strengths of the lecture to deliver content while still involving students in active participation in their learning through in-class collaborative group problem-solving. Critical thinking and professional skills development are then strongly addressed within the framework of theme-based modular laboratory courses. In this article we present (1) how quantitative analytical chemistry fits into the new approach, (2) detail of the central framework, (3) two examples of its pilot implementation to demonstrate its flexibility, and (4) our thoughts for future directions. Anal Bioanal Chem (2008) 392:1–8 DOI 10.1007/s00216-008-2240-4

IPAS (Natural and Social Sciences) Learning in the Merdeka Belajar Curriculum is an essential component of educational development in Indonesia. In IPAS learning, students are equipped with the knowledge and skills necessary to comprehend complex natural and social phenomena and make informed decisions based on available evidence and data analysis. As social beings who interact daily with the natural and social environment, this subject is crucial for acquiring the required knowledge and skills. Achieving this goal necessitates proper planning, implementation, and evaluation. In this article, a qualitative descriptive literature review method is employed, involving the collection of information and data using various library materials such as documents, books, magazines, historical narratives, and others. This approach leads to the conclusion that the planning of IPAS learning encompasses analyzing Learning Outcomes (LO) to formulate learning objectives and the sequence of learning objectives, planning and conducting diagnostic assessments, developing teaching modules, teaching with LO stages and student characteristics, planning, implementing, and processing formative and summative assessments, reporting learning progress, and evaluating learning and assessment. Regarding the implementation, it involves several stages including introduction, orientation activities, pre-perception activities, motivation activities, core activities, and closure activities. However, the implementation of learning activities is inseparable from the core learning experiences as outlined in Permendikbud Regulation Number 81 A of 2013, Attachment IV, which specifies five core learning experiences: observing, questioning, gathering information/experimenting, associating/processing information, and communicating. As for the evaluation phase, it consists of several stages that are adapted to the curriculum, using assessments such as rubrics, checklists, progress graphs, projects, written tests, oral tests, assignments, portfolios, and other relevant assessments related to the materials taught by educators.

Sociolinguistics is a frontier science. From the beginning of this century onward, following an ever-deepening observation and inference in natural sciences and social phenomena, an awareness arose that a single science (be it even a systematic one), cannot explain, let alone analyze in great detail, complex natural and social phenomena. Real life demanded interdisciplinary studies, which gave rise to frontier sciences. Nature and society do not consist of separate and unrelated parts; rather, nature and society are an organic, integrated whole, which cannot be explained in terms of mechanical materialism.