(Dis)Engaging Monolingualism from the Tower of Babel: Church and National Inclusivity in Zimbabwe

It has always been felt by African educationists that the African child’s major learning problem is linguistic. Instruction is given in a language that is not normally used in his immediate environment, a language which neither the learner nor the teacher understands and uses well enough (Obanya, l980, 88). If the African child’s major learning problem is linguistic, then all the attention of African policy-makers and aid to the education sector from donors should be devoted to a strengthening of the African languages as languages of instruction, especially in basic education. My own experience after having taught in Africa for four years and having visited hundreds of classrooms both in east and west Africa is that Obanya is completely right; the African child’s major learning problem is linguistic. Children are being branded as unintelligent when they lack knowledge of the language used in instruction, a language they often hardly hear and seldom use outside of the classroom. The concept “education for all” becomes a completely empty concept if the linguistic environment of the basic learners is not taken into account (Brock-Utne, 2000; Brock-Utne, 2001; Klaus, 2001). Yet there is hardly another socio-cultural topic one can begin discussing with Africans that leads to so heated debates and stirs up so many emotions as that of the language of instruction in African schools. It is difficult to discuss this topic as a strictly educational question phrased for instance as: “Through which medium of instruction would children learn subject matter best?”; “If the aim is to master a ‘world’ language, would it be better to have that language as a language of instruction at the earliest time possible or to develop the vernacular or a commonly spoken national language further first?”; or “What does it mean for the learning potential, the development of self-respect and identity that the language one normally communicates in does not seem to be deemed fit for a language of instruction in school?”

<p><b>This applied thesis explores why continued access to Pacific language education is of importance in mainstream secondary education in Aotearoa. With a specific focus on gagana Tokelau and lea faka-Tonga, this research examines how mainstream secondary schools can provide continued access to language education in schools where immersion or bilingual education is not currently available. The impetus driving this research comes from my professional experience as a secondary school language teacher. Students I teach want to learn and/or maintain their heritage Pacific languages as part of their education but are often not able to within the curriculum. This is despite several current policies which explicitly promote the use of Pacific languages and cultures within the education system (Ministry of Education, 2019; 2020a). Furthermore, current interdisciplinary research informing educational policy and practice indicates that students thrive in their education, and experience a positive sense of wellbeing when they are strong in their own cultural identities (Franken et al, 2008; Ladson-Billings, 2017; Paris & Alim, 2017). In contrast, negotiation of strong cultural identities is challenging in the face of increasing language shift, such as is present in Tokelauan and Tongan communities in Aotearoa (Hunkin, 2012; McCaffery & McFall, 2010; Parsons, 2020).</b></p> <p>To address these issues, I locate my study by drawing on cross-disciplinary, international, and local literature, exploring the fields of critical education, Indigenous education, and applied critical sociolinguistics. My research questions are underpinned by three theoretical frameworks: (1) social justice (Freire, 1973; Phipps, 2019); (2) sociolinguistic (Norton, 2013) and Pacific (Anae, 2016; Mila-Schaaf, 2011; Tupuola, 2004; Vaai & Nabobo-Baba, 2017) theories of identity; and (3) edgewalking (Krebs, 1999). These theories support the investigation of the research questions, which explore (1) connections between language, culture, identity, and wellbeing; (2) how secondary school experiences of Pacific language education connect with future imagined identities; and (3) reported experiences and beliefs about challenges related to school-based continued access to Pacific language education. The research questions apply a critical strengths-based approach which allows for a positive focus on current efforts and initiatives in communities as a platform for further development, whilst not ignoring struggle (Blackledge & Creese, 2010; Heller et al, 2018; Mila, 2014).</p> <p>The theoretically driven methodological approach looks to relational vā-inspired and critical ethnographic methodologies to support and place the caring and nurturing of relationships and community driven outcomes at the centre of the project (Airini et al, 2010; Anae, 2016; Ponton, 2018). Working together with communities, I am guided by two Tokelauan values: tautua (to serve) and alofa ki te tamā manu (nurturing those in need). In this way, the thesis is about the critical act of partnering ‘doing’ or ‘praxis’ (Freire, 1973; Phipps, 2019) with research. Multiple participant perspectives (community members, students, teachers, and school leaders) and a bricolage of methods (talanoa-inspired interviews and focus group discussions, participant observations, fieldnotes, ongoing service in communities) capture the voices of different stakeholders to contribute a community-centred, complex data set.</p> <p>Findings illustrate how Tokelauan and Tongan community members, and secondary students connect language and culture with (1) confidence and self-esteem, (2) Indigenous understandings of identity and wellbeing, and (3) authentic cultural identity with wellbeing. In addition, data show how multilingualism is the norm in Pacific identities and how the (de)valuing of multilingualism in education can enhance or hinder identity and wellbeing. Exploration of future imagined identities indicates how access to Pacific language education in secondary school supports increased cultural, social, and material capital; language maintenance; and valuing of language. Furthermore, access to language education provides a safe space to critically explore issues of language, culture, and identities and enables community and school partnerships to support sustainable speech communities. Analysing challenges experienced in relation to provision of Pacific language education, specifically gagana Tokelau and lea faka-Tonga highlight the many local and systemic-level issues within communities, the education system, and wider society that need to be addressed if equity and social justice in language education is to prevail.</p> <p>Theoretical insights, and analysis of affordances and challenges from the findings provide suggestions for potential ways forward in both educational practice and policy. Moreover, the research process documents my own journey in attempting to decolonise approaches to language education in my practice as a teacher. Working together with communities, and guided by two Tokelauan values: tautua (to serve) and alofa ki te tamā manu (nurturing those in need), I hope this project can further support community efforts by adding to the growing body of research (Bland, forthcoming; May, 2020; Milne, 2017; Si‘ilata et al, 2019) calling for a systemic approach to nurturing Pacific languages in Aotearoa through education.</p>

<p><b>This applied thesis explores why continued access to Pacific language education is of importance in mainstream secondary education in Aotearoa. With a specific focus on gagana Tokelau and lea faka-Tonga, this research examines how mainstream secondary schools can provide continued access to language education in schools where immersion or bilingual education is not currently available. The impetus driving this research comes from my professional experience as a secondary school language teacher. Students I teach want to learn and/or maintain their heritage Pacific languages as part of their education but are often not able to within the curriculum. This is despite several current policies which explicitly promote the use of Pacific languages and cultures within the education system (Ministry of Education, 2019; 2020a). Furthermore, current interdisciplinary research informing educational policy and practice indicates that students thrive in their education, and experience a positive sense of wellbeing when they are strong in their own cultural identities (Franken et al, 2008; Ladson-Billings, 2017; Paris & Alim, 2017). In contrast, negotiation of strong cultural identities is challenging in the face of increasing language shift, such as is present in Tokelauan and Tongan communities in Aotearoa (Hunkin, 2012; McCaffery & McFall, 2010; Parsons, 2020).</b></p> <p>To address these issues, I locate my study by drawing on cross-disciplinary, international, and local literature, exploring the fields of critical education, Indigenous education, and applied critical sociolinguistics. My research questions are underpinned by three theoretical frameworks: (1) social justice (Freire, 1973; Phipps, 2019); (2) sociolinguistic (Norton, 2013) and Pacific (Anae, 2016; Mila-Schaaf, 2011; Tupuola, 2004; Vaai & Nabobo-Baba, 2017) theories of identity; and (3) edgewalking (Krebs, 1999). These theories support the investigation of the research questions, which explore (1) connections between language, culture, identity, and wellbeing; (2) how secondary school experiences of Pacific language education connect with future imagined identities; and (3) reported experiences and beliefs about challenges related to school-based continued access to Pacific language education. The research questions apply a critical strengths-based approach which allows for a positive focus on current efforts and initiatives in communities as a platform for further development, whilst not ignoring struggle (Blackledge & Creese, 2010; Heller et al, 2018; Mila, 2014).</p> <p>The theoretically driven methodological approach looks to relational vā-inspired and critical ethnographic methodologies to support and place the caring and nurturing of relationships and community driven outcomes at the centre of the project (Airini et al, 2010; Anae, 2016; Ponton, 2018). Working together with communities, I am guided by two Tokelauan values: tautua (to serve) and alofa ki te tamā manu (nurturing those in need). In this way, the thesis is about the critical act of partnering ‘doing’ or ‘praxis’ (Freire, 1973; Phipps, 2019) with research. Multiple participant perspectives (community members, students, teachers, and school leaders) and a bricolage of methods (talanoa-inspired interviews and focus group discussions, participant observations, fieldnotes, ongoing service in communities) capture the voices of different stakeholders to contribute a community-centred, complex data set.</p> <p>Findings illustrate how Tokelauan and Tongan community members, and secondary students connect language and culture with (1) confidence and self-esteem, (2) Indigenous understandings of identity and wellbeing, and (3) authentic cultural identity with wellbeing. In addition, data show how multilingualism is the norm in Pacific identities and how the (de)valuing of multilingualism in education can enhance or hinder identity and wellbeing. Exploration of future imagined identities indicates how access to Pacific language education in secondary school supports increased cultural, social, and material capital; language maintenance; and valuing of language. Furthermore, access to language education provides a safe space to critically explore issues of language, culture, and identities and enables community and school partnerships to support sustainable speech communities. Analysing challenges experienced in relation to provision of Pacific language education, specifically gagana Tokelau and lea faka-Tonga highlight the many local and systemic-level issues within communities, the education system, and wider society that need to be addressed if equity and social justice in language education is to prevail.</p> <p>Theoretical insights, and analysis of affordances and challenges from the findings provide suggestions for potential ways forward in both educational practice and policy. Moreover, the research process documents my own journey in attempting to decolonise approaches to language education in my practice as a teacher. Working together with communities, and guided by two Tokelauan values: tautua (to serve) and alofa ki te tamā manu (nurturing those in need), I hope this project can further support community efforts by adding to the growing body of research (Bland, forthcoming; May, 2020; Milne, 2017; Si‘ilata et al, 2019) calling for a systemic approach to nurturing Pacific languages in Aotearoa through education.</p>

Efforts to promote and impose Mandarin Chinese as the language of instruction in ethnic minority schools in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, aimed at further integrating the state and raising regional educational and economic quality, have had mixed success. The 2004 plan to consolidate Han Chinese and minority elementary and middle schools and to make Mandarin the universal language of instruction in those schools is fostering an immersive second-language environment without prior preparation for students, bringing native speakers of Mandarin into unfair competition with non-native speakers. The increased focus on Mandarin has already had grave consequences for ethnic relations, especially in urban Uyghur schools, where the project is focused, while the mandate for change in educational curriculum and methodology has also been poorly planned and remains under-resourced, negatively impacting educational quality. The Chinese government has available to it other language policy solutions that are both more workable and friendlier to minority sensibilities.

This study aims to identify the capacity of school administrators as catalysts of the digitalisation of Malay language education in schools. It also seeks to explain the issues faced by school administrators in leading the digitalisation of Malay language education at the school level. This research employed a qualitative approach using a case study design, with interviews, observations, and document analysis as its research instruments. The study sample consisted of six school administrators, namely three headmasters and three senior assistants. The study was conducted in three national primary schools located in the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur. Purposive sampling was used for sample selection. Narrative and descriptive analysis methods were applied to interpret the research findings. The findings revealed that school administrators demonstrated capabilities in managing the digitalisation of Malay language education, teacher professional development, infrastructure and technology support, evaluation practices, and communication related to digitalization in Malay language education. The study also identified several issues hindering the digitalisation effort, including unstable Internet access, insufficient technological equipment, limited financial resources, teacher attitudes, increased workload, technical skill gaps, and time constraints. This study carries implications for stakeholders to remain attentive to the realities and challenges faced by school administrators and Malay language teachers in implementing the digitalisation of Malay language education in schools.

Plurilinguism represents an essential characteristic of the Swiss conception of state.1 According to Article 4 of the Swiss Federal Constitution (Bundesverfassung, hereinafter BV)2 German, French, Italian and Rhaeto-Romanic are recognised as national languages on an equal footing.3 Although plurilinguism as such is not a specifically Swiss phenomenon, the language equality with regard to four national languages can certainly be said to be a Swiss particularity worldwide.4 A characteristic of the language diversity in Switzerland is the quite clearly demarcated geographical distribution of the four national languages within four language areas according to their traditional distribution. Hence, although the Swiss federal state is, officially, quadrilingual, most of the Cantons are unilingual.5 Conflicts with regard to the use of languages in the public sphere arise in particular in the multilingual Cantons of Switzerland.6 One sensitive area is the question of the language of instruction in the public school system. It is therefore not surprising that the highest Swiss Court (hereinafter Federal Court) has often been confronted with the problem of language of instruction for national minority children starting school in multilingual Cantons and, interrelated with that, the question of a right to education in one’s mother tongue. The jurisprudence and legal scholars in Switzerland have so far discussed these conflicts mainly, if not exclusively, in the light of the constitutional guarantees regarding the use of languages, in particular the tension between the freedom of language and the territorial language principle (principle of territoriality). Besides, the principle of non-discrimination of minorities has recently been put in the limelight of the discussion.7 Strikingly, problems with regard to the more general principle of equality, in particular the principle of equal educational opportunities, have hardly been discussed and considered so far. The aim of this article is to show that against the legal and educational scientific background regarding equality in education there are good reasons to put more emphasis on the interrelation between language of instruction and equal educational opportunities and, consequently, to mitigate the meaning of the territorial language principle which has, time after time, served to justify considerable restrictions as to the use of (national) minority languages in schools. The focus will be on the recent Fribourg Linguistic Case8 which, once again, brought the latent conflicts regarding language of instruction in multilingual Cantons before the Federal Court. Associations with the Belgian Linguistic Case of the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) will inevitably arise and, at some points of the discussion, this jurisprudence shall be included. Furthermore, European and international instruments aiming at the protection of language minorities shall be considered where they are of importance and interest in our context. Finally, I will present a short discussion on recent developments in Swiss language policy regarding the field of school education.

The Republic of Suriname in South America and the Carribean island of Aruba are both former Dutch colonies. After its independence in 1975 Suriname opted for maintaining Dutch as an official language and a language of education and also in Aruba, which is nowadays an autonomous part of the Kingdom of The Netherlands, Dutch remained the official language and the language of instruction in education. The fact that Suriname and Aruba are both multilingual societies - Suriname has some twenty different languages and in Aruba, apart from Dutch, Papiamento is the main language - over the years gave rise to heated debates about what language or languages should best serve as a medium of instruction in schools. This question was investigated by means of a survey that was administered with 200 respondents in the case of Aruba (educational professionals and lay people living in Aruba) and 315 in the case of Suriname (partly living in Suriname and partly in The Netherlands). The investigation showed that on Aruba lay people, among which parents of school going children, are the main advocates of Dutch as language of instruction in schools whereas educational professionals show a clear preference for including Papiamento as a language of instruction. In Suriname on the other hand, both groups of respondents showed a clear preference for using Dutch as a language of instruction. These outcomes seem to be related to differences in the linguistic landscape in Suriname and Aruba and to the different colonial history of the two countries.

Where do I begin to read? Concepts about print support early L1 and L2 word reading in emerging bilingual readers

Interpretation — General Purpose of the Treaty as an Element of Interpretation — Provisions of Minorities Treaties.Interpretation of Minorities Treaties — Language of Instruction in Schools — Language of Certificates — General Purpose of the Treaty as an Element of Interpretation.

The government of Zimbabwe officially declared that with effect from January 2002, it was to implement the use and teaching of the official minority languages, namely Venda, Tonga, Nambya, Kalanga, Sotho and Shangani, as the media of instruction and subjects in primary schools in areas where they are spoken. The Ministry stated that these languages would be introduced to a grade per year, increasing until they could be taught at grade seven by 2005. However, the reality at ground level reveals otherwise. After this welcomed move, there has been little commitment or urgency to implement this policy. Is it a question of the purpose for the encouragement and support by official policy of mother tongue education in the official minority languages? Is it a question of cost-benefit analysis? Is this not a violation of linguistic human rights in education, particularly the right to mother tongue education? This article seeks to address the above questions in view of mother tongue education in the official minority languages in Zimbabwe as well as to assess the impact of this delay in the implementation of the policy on the learners' learning experience.

Based on the theory of change, we gather, organize, and synthesize the evidence on the impact of three language of instruction (LOI) choices (teaching in mother tongue [MT] with later transition, teaching in a non‐MT language, or teaching in two or more languages at one time) on literacy and biliteracy outcomes. We focus on quantitative and qualitative studies of LOI interventions in low‐ and middle‐income countries (LMICs) and consider languages that are commonly spoken in the developing world. As such, we include studies that examine transfers from local languages to English, but not those evaluating transfers from local languages to languages that are less spoken in LMICs (e.g., Swedish).

Europe is recognised and admired as a continent with enormous linguistic and cultural diversity. Since the 1950s, the political agenda of the European institutions has been focused on protecting and promoting the multilingualism of its citizens. Since the early years of the new century, however, the promotion of multilingualism has become a necessity. Migration flows to Europe have led to a paradigm shift in multilingualism policy: Proficiency in several languages has not only become useful to improve academic and professional mobility, but also necessary to ensure the integration of new European citizens. It has therefore become increasingly important to intervene in schools and universities to promote the multilingualism of learners, as it should be considered an asset and not an obstacle to integration. This paper looks at the tools that the European institutions provide to Member States and local institutions to implement an educational policy adapted to the multilingual reality of today's Europe.The contribution focuses in particular on the Learning Education Policy Profile, a mentoring and monitoring tool provided by the Council of Europe to member states and local institutions. The example of the LEPP Austria is briefly analysed, identifying potentials and critical points of the Austrian education system. Particular attention is paid to the didactics of German as a language of instruction in schools with a high proportion of learners with a migrant background. The key question of this study is: Are schools in Europe up to the paradigm shift of a multilingual society in which languages such as Ukrainian, Arabic and Turkish characterise the 'language habitat' of our classes?

Balinese, as the mother tongue of the Balinese people, faces challenges in its survival. Although the number of Balinese speakers is still relatively large, there is an alarming shift among the younger generation in the use of this language. This phenomenon creates the need for more serious efforts to strengthen the position of the Balinese language, especially in the family environment and early education. The method used in this research is a qualitative descriptive approach, with data collection carried out through a literature review. Analysis shows that Balinese is included in the category of endangered languages according to language typology by Michel Krauss. The use of Balinese as the language of instruction in initial education at school level is also an important focus. However, national policies and globalization pressures often lead to a decline in the use of regional languages in schools. The importance of using the mother tongue in education, especially at the initial level, has been supported by international organizations such as UNESCO. Efforts to strengthen the Balinese language can be carried out through several strategies, including strengthening the use of the Balinese language in the family environment, using Balinese as the language of instruction in schools at the educational level beginning, holding family-level Balinese language competitions, and reviving the "Dina Mabasa Bali" program as part of a policy that strengthens the habit of using the Balinese language. Through these steps, it is hoped that the existence of the Balinese language as the mother tongue of the Balinese people can be maintained and strengthened.

This research investigates the profound role of language in education within the context of the Kandyan Kingdom and colonial-era Sri Lanka. Specifically, it scrutinizes the impact of adopting English as the medium of instruction on the preservation of indigenous languages. The study delves into the primary languages employed in the traditional education system of the Kandyan Kingdom and their vital contributions to knowledge transmission and cultural heritage preservation. It also examines the language policies enacted during the colonial period and their repercussions on the language of instruction in schools. Moreover, the research explores the consequences of adopting English as the medium of instruction, analyzing its influence on the proficiency, usage, and status of indigenous languages. Meticulous investigation is conducted into the attitudes and responses of the local population, especially educators, towards this transition. Furthermore, the study assesses the implications of the shift to English medium education on access to education for various socio-cultural groups within the Kandyan Kingdom. The research also delves into the efforts undertaken during the colonial period to promote and safeguard indigenous languages within the education system. The analysis extends to the post-colonial education system in the Kandyan Kingdom, evaluating the current status of indigenous languages and any initiatives aimed at their revival and promotion. By drawing comparisons between historical language policies and practices in the Kandyan Kingdom and those in other colonial regions or countries, this research aims to provide valuable insights that can inform contemporary language policies and practices in Sri Lanka.

Norwegian has two written forms: Bokmål, which resembles the oral language in the cities, and Nynorsk, which resembles the oral language in rural areas of Western Norway. This study exploits this linguistic situation to test a hypothesis that discrepancies between non-standard oral language and standardised written language have negative effects on the educational attainment of young people. It compares the level of education completed at age 27 for a full population of 30,322 individuals who received their instruction in schools in either Bokmål or Nynorsk in rural municipalities of Southern Norway, while controlling for other factors. The findings show an educational disadvantage among students from rural areas with Bokmål instruction compared to similar Nynorsk areas. The study discusses possible socio-linguistic explanations for these findings and argues that language policies are important because they indirectly affect access to higher education. • Research suggest that disparities between oral language and language of instruction negatively affect educational outcomes. • This hypothesis can be tested in Norway because of its two written forms of Norwegian used in schools. • Findings on educational attainments among students from rural areas of southern Norway support this hypothesis. • Parental education levels and cognitive tests accounted for only some of these gaps in educational attainments.