Directing a Play by Rudolfo Anaya: Un recuerdo y muchas memorias

“We Never Could Understand Why the Black Man Did Not Come to Us”:

“We Never Could Understand Why the Black Man Did Not Come to Us”:

This essay pairs documents dating from 1758 on the settlement of central Texas with the 2007 film No Country for Old Men to offer a comparative analysis of the competing racial geographies that emerged from Spanish and Anglo-American colonialism in the Southwest. These modes of European empire each produced distinctive racial geographies with lasting consequences for contemporary indigenous peoples. Settlers under the Spanish Crown represented the Texas territory as teeming with indigenous peoples, including the Apache and Comanche nations. Spanish coloniality, she suggests, was predicated upon indigenous presence. Without Indians, there could be no settlement. Meanwhile, Anglo-American colonization required not only the dispossession of indigenous peoples (and mestizo Mexicans) for the expansion of the US, but also the banishment of the figure of the Indian from the national imagination. Consequently, the Cohen brothers’ film is able to represent the very same Texas territory as barren and completely devoid of any Native Americans 250 years after the Spanish settlers penned their documents. It is suggested that the displacement of the Indian from the American landscape comes at great psychic cost. Thus, even a seemingly anti-war and anti-imperialist film like No Country operates under the shadow of this US colonial violence, registering the trace of the Indian as terrorist. The essay offers a revision of postcolonial methodology, and particularly of subaltern studies, to allow for the analysis of the complex relationship evident in the Spanish colonial archive between white settler and indigenous populations. Rather than a perpetual antagonism, it finds an attenuated set of relations between Spanish settlers and indigenous inhabitants of Texas, offering a broader interpretative framework for indigenous agency.

Reviewed by: Where Caciques and Mapmakers Met: Border Making in Eighteenth-Century South America by Jeffrey Alan Erbig Jr. John Rennie Short Where Caciques and Mapmakers Met: Border Making in Eighteenth-Century South America. By Jeffrey Alan Erbig, Jr. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2020, p. 259, $24.95. Colonial territories in South America, as elsewhere around the world, were mapped as they were claimed and appropriated. In this book, Jeffrey Alan Erbig, Jr. examines the complex interaction between two imperial powers and indigenous people in the making of a boundary in the eighteenth century between Brazil and Spanish South America in the area now known as Uruguay. Portugal and Spain signed two treaties, the1750 Treaty of Madrid and the 1777 Treaty of San Ildefonso, to determine the border between Brazil and Spanish South America. A general map of the continent was drawn up in Europe and Portuguese and Spanish diplomats drew more detailed instructions for the border. Mapmakers then traveled to South America to survey the border line. It was a massive enterprise that involved numerous teams surveying the almost 10,000-mile boundary. This book focuses in on one region, the Rio de la Plata. It was complex space of Portuguese and Spanish colonial settlements, Jesuit missions, and indigenous encampments, tolderías of about 30 to 100 people There were complex interactions in this settlement archipelago. The mobile lifestyle of indigenous people widened their access to resources in the interior, allowing them to trade with the colonial settlers and control vital trade routes. In the complex trading system that developed, the colonial settlers had to acknowledge the territorial control of the indigenous people. Boundary-marking and border-making were not a simple projection of imperial domains onto this complex space. Border-making had to accept the diffused power in the region. It was a social process that involved the founding of forts and strategic settlements to mark and guard the boundary, population reshufflings, displacement, and new forms of interactions. The indigenous people played a major role in the complex interactions between imperial agents, religious foundations and settlers. The delimiting of competing imperial powers increased indigenous power in certain places, at least for a time. While the creation of the border involved the displacement and dispossession of indigenous people, some local groups used the process to extend their territorial reach and extend their trading networks. Indigenous groups further from the border were more firmly situated inside imperial control, while those closer to the border could leverage their liminal position to expand trade routes and subvert the border. But, over time, as the border hardened, the indigenous people were squeezed by the imperial authorities. The late 18th century [End Page 348] border-making provided opportunities for certain indigenous leaders, but these disappeared once the border failed to restrict the movement of imperial agents. The book is based on a detailed study of numerous maps produced at the time and a careful reading of 700 manuscripts. The result is a very granular description of the process. At times, the granularity, when combined with shifting temporal frame, makes it easy to lose your bearings in the complex text. The book would have benefitted from either a more straightforward linear narrative or a more overt signaling of the shifting temporal context. At times the text elides over decades and centuries without much warning to the reader. Despite this criticism, the book adds to our knowledge of the complexity of colonial settler societies and highlights the social nature of boundary drawing and border making. The work highlights an interesting shift in territorial possession from legal access to resources to legal ownership of resources. It provides a case study of the imperial monopolization of property and the drive for territorial exclusivity. The book also indicates how the maps drawn by European cosmographers, so easy to draw up from the comfort of courts in Europe, were difficult to express on the ground. The author highlights the enormous gap between imperial designs and local implementation. There is much to find much to learn from the book. It is an important contribution to our understanding of how boundaries are made and their social consequences in settler colonialism...

The Caribbean economies, at the start of the nineteenth century, bore all the hallmarks of 300 years of European colonialism. The indigenous population had been wiped out by war or disease and replaced by a labour force whose main activity was the production of commodities for export. The land was either devoted to exports or to products such as ground provisions and cattle-grazing that supported exports indirectly. The capital was invested either directly in the export sector or in the infrastructure needed to bring the main commodities to market. Only in the Spanish colonies – Cuba and Puerto Rico – was there a significant small-scale peasantry concentrating on the domestic market, and this was a consequence of imperial neglect rather than a deliberate policy of encouraging an internal market. No other region of the world was so specialised in exports. The mainland colonies of Latin America had also been subjected to 300 years of colonial exploitation, but many of them had large indigenous or mestizo populations engaged in agricultural production for themselves or for the internal market. The same was true of the African and Asian economies, whether they were independent, such as Ethiopia and Thailand, recently colonised, such as Natal in South Africa and Bengal in India, or long-standing European colonies, such as the Philippines. Only the Caribbean had economies where virtually all factors of production were devoted either directly or indirectly to exports.

230 Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies Feminizing the Enemy: Imperial Spain, Transvestite Drama, and the Crisis of Masculinity Bucknell University Press, 2003 By Sidney Donned The study of cross-dressing on the early modern Spanish stage has been a fertile field for many years—especially in terms ofthe popular mujer vestida de hombre device—while scholarship on non-traditional sexuality in sixteenthand seventeenth-century Spanish literature, drama, and culture has likewise seen a boom in recent years. Sidney Donnell's impressive book Feminizing the Enemy both builds upon and challenges previous studies on transgressive gender and desire in the comedia by focusing on plays in which men dress as women as well as the context in which they were written, performed, and interpreted. In this insightful and engaging analysis of dramatic texts and performances the author takes conservatism in Comedia Studies to task over gender ambiguities by investigating the essentialized understandings of identity as it relates to masculinity, femininity, sexuality, class, and ethnicity in early modern transvestite drama. Chapter one, for example, proves informative and engaging details of the early sixteenth-century conflict over who would play feminine roles—men, boys, or women. The author adeptly demonstrates die conditions and consequences of how the all-male casts in the mid-sixteenth century slowly integrated female actresses and how by the end ofthe seventeenth century only women played the female roles. The remaining chapters continue the investigation of how transvestite drama developed and changed in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, as Donnell relies heavily on the theoretical framework of Judith Butler in Gender Troubh to expose the naturalization of gender identity in Habsburg Spain. The plays selected for in-depth analysis include Lope de Rueda's Comedia Medora, Alonso de Morales's Comedia de, los amores y hcuras del conde loco, Lope de Vega's ElparaÃ-so de Laura y florestas del amor, Cristóbal Monroy y Silva's El caballero dama, and CalderórÃ-s La púrpura de L· rosa. Perhaps one ofthe most impressive aspects of Donnell's study is found in his ability to draw connections between his textual analyses, the performance of diese plays within their social and historical context, and the relevance of late-twentieth century gender theory and cultural studies. While the author convincingly demonstrates what Judith Buder would call the performative act of gender, as I read I couldn't help wondering how DonneU would apply Butler's recent reconsideration of her previous theories on transgressive gender and sexuality (in Undoing Gender) and perhaps even the claims of some transgendered individuals today who argue that, for them, non-traditional gender identity feels more "natural" and therefore not as performative as would traditional mainstream expectations. In fact, these gender complexities create a fascinating dialogue with the author's reading of the transgendered Catalina de Erauso, as weU as the interpretations and performances of her life in the seventeenth century. Of course, my desire to continue discussion ofthe issues elucidated by Donnell is proof that this erudite, weU-argued, and innovative study is as provocative as the material of investigation. Sherry Velasco University of Kentucky El Narcotraficante: Narcocorridos and the Construction of a Cultural Persona on the U. S.-Mexican Border University of Texas Press, 2004 By Mark Cameron Edberg In El Narcotraficante Mark Cameron Edberg examines the cultural image ofthe drug trafficker , a representation that has been comodified and recast by the Mexican and Mexican American cultures, the surrounding socioeconomic circumstances, the music industry and various mass media outlets. Conducting his research mainly along the border area of Ciudad Juárez and El Paso, as well as in Los Angeles, the audior interviewed narcocorrido listeners, performers, disc jockeys and record producers. Aided by a ...

In the 15th century, the Spanish Empire had settled in America and dominated the indigenous peoples of Latin America. The some of the region showed that these native were even expropriated after the domination. The Spanish Empire recognized this situation and started to think of how to manage these people who were rulled. At that time, the empire tried to establish law and discipline for recognition of the indigenous people the legislaition was on purpose to protect the human right for them. In spite of the effort to legistlate the laws in the mainland, however, the adaptation of the laws was another problem. This law can not function as not only protection but the ladder for escaping the life of socially underprivileged. According to this, the present study will introduce the discussion of the indigenous people and legislated spainsh laws from 16th century when the Spanish Empire had been in the business of colonization. Furthermore, we thought the turning point of thoguthful recognition on the native is the ‘Valladolid debate’. Through this debate, this study found out the relationship between the Spain and Latin America and treatment of them at that time. The thing is to analyze the 『Recopilación de Leyes de las Indias』 which was merged in 1680 and to reflect on how that law was applid to them. This study would provide the direction to understand what endeavors the Spanish empire did to recognize the race during the period of colonization.

Spanish historians have always found it surprising that the greatest colonial loss ever suffered by a European monarchy did not bring about an intellectual reflection in the 1820s and 1830s similar to that which followed the loss of a handful of islands in the Caribbean and the China Sea in 1898. In fact, neither Ayacucho (the last battle in Peru in 1824) nor the hopeless resistance of Spanish troops in San Juan de Ulúa, Mexico, after 1821, produced a reaction of a national mourning or reflections on the place of Spain and Spanish civilization in the world. On the contrary, if there was any common ground in the analyses made at the time, it was the emphasis on the inevitability of the process understood as emancipation. Whilst some questioned the more or less opportune timing of the event, it was generally felt that the maturing of the American territories was always, sooner or later, going to lead to their independence, like a son who leaves home, guardianship and dependence on paternal authority to begin his own life. It is not surprising therefore that upon independence war gave way to expressions of familial reconciliation. During the negotiations for mutual diplomatic recognition between Mexico and Spain, finally established in 1836, such language was clearly expressed by the Spanish delegate: ‘This [negotiation between Spain and Mexico] must be entered into, not as a treaty of peace, recognition and commerce between two different nations, but adopting the principle of the reconciliation of two members of the same family by means of which we may obtain commercial advantages greater than those enjoyed by more privileged nations … .’KeywordsRoyal FamilyPaternal AuthorityFrench RepublicAmerican TerritoryConstitutional RevolutionThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

This article is based upon the premise that there existed in nineteenth-century Spanish culture a consciousness of empire that has gone largely unnoticed by literary criticism and historiography. The article sets out to define that consciousness and propose a new framework for the study of turn-of-the-century Spanish culture; to this end, it examines texts by three authors in which the complex question of empire is clearly documented. Eduardo López Bago, Vicente Blasco Ibáñez, and Miguel de Unamuno exemplify the plurality and variety that existed among writers in Spain with regard to the colonial question and, in their turn, demonstrate the complexity that marks references to and writing about the empire. Insofar as El separatista by López Brago is a clear example of what may be called 'the literature of empire', the analysis of this novel reveals the way in which the imperialist imagination functioned in the last third of the nineteenth century. Blasco Ibáñez's articles opposing the Spanish colonial wars illustrate the complexities and ambiguities that existed in Spain with regard to the colonial project, even among the most radical intellectuals of the time. The only voice in the literary world that denounced Spanish colonialism was that of Unamuno in his 'Epilogue' to Vida y escritos del Dr José Rizal de Wenceslao Reatana. The reading offered in this article of these three authors' texts suggests new approaches to the study of the cultural production in turn-of-the-century Spain.

152 Western American Literature San Juan Bautista: Gateway to Spanish Texas. By Robert S. Weddle. (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1968. 469 pages, map, illus., biblio., index, $8.50.) Recent president of the Texas Old Missions Restoration Association and a man of varied newspaper experience, Robert S. Weddle has written this comprehensive history of Spanish missions in Texas, from their beginnings through the years of the republic of Texas, a span of over two centuries. The excellence of this book about mission activity and military life on the frontier is ample proof of Mr. Weddle’s qualifications for the task. To control a remote, shifting frontier across the northern reaches of Nueva España, the Spanish crown had during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries a series of missions and presidios built at extended intervals, the missions to civilize the Indians and incorporate them into the Spanish com­ munity, the presidios to protect missions and independent settlers. History shows that most political gambits work well when operated by intelligent leaders but fail in the hands of the vacillating, the stupid, the parochial. Spanish colonial expansion, carried out with a sword in one hand, a cross in the other (each hand at times ignoring what the other did), had, like the policies of other nations, defects as well as advantages, but with one result rarely ascribed to other colonial powers: once established, Spanish culture, the Spanish pattern of living, persisted tenaciously even when Spain withdrew politically from the scene. Mr. Weddle has logically centered his story around the San Juan Bautista mission on the Coahuila or Mexican shore of the Rio Grande because this mission, long the most advanced outpost of New Spain’s northeastern frontier, became a springboard for most of the exploration and colonizing of Spanish Texas during the eighteenth century. San Juan Bautista and its companion mission, San Bernardo, with their presidio, formed a complex from which the majority of expeditions were launched into Texas, then a battleground between invading Comanches and retreating Apaches. The site of this vanished complex is now occupied by the village of Guerrero between Eagle Pass and Laredo, nearer the former. Laredo, incidentally, ultimately superseded San Juan Bautista as the gateway into Texas, thus causing the mision’s decline, though as late as the Mexican republic General Santa Anna led an army to San Antonio via San Juan Bautista rather thn via Laredo. So, to write a book about San Juan Bautista is to write a history of Spanish colonialism, missionary and military, in Texas and northern Mexico. The wealth of detailed information available about the Spanish of this era and in this area lies in copious records kept by Spanish soldiers, friars and government functionaries right on the spot, men who seemed to have been the most literate, the most archive-minded pioneers of history. The author has done a tremendous job, having gone through quantities of such materia] to select what is significant for this story, often offering readers direct Reviews 153 quotations from letters, diaries, orders, and reports. Such quotations make fascinating reading, their tone and style affording insight into these men and their attitudes, their beliefs, and their psychology. This harsh frontier of vast empty spaces is the antithesis of our crowded epoch as this is a story of rugged individuals rather than an impersonal sociological study. One is repeatedly impressed by the small numbers of men undertaking perilous expeditions whether punitive, military, exploratory, or missionary. Yet they faced much the same tactical and military problems confronting huge armies today. Some of the political situations parallel ours though on a smaller, more leisurely scale. We note the same jealousies between branches of govern­ ment and armed services, which are so conspicuous anywhere today; we note a commander who ignores his viceroy’s orders, betraying some exposed settle­ ment of compatriots; experts are summoned to the capital from the field only to have their counsels ignored in favor of some bureaucrat’s paper theory! Among vivid personalities crowding these pages are ambitious but selfsacrificing padres as well as Spanish and Mexican mliitary leaders; at least one French adventurer is a memorable picaro playing his part on the frontier stage. Tracing the...

Objective – This research is motivated by assessing that the culture of drinking coffee in several countries has its own way and coffee also has its own taste. Studying the cultures of various countries shows market differentiation, you can grouping the cultures from these differences to become similar culture of the countries, in order to do International Marketing easier. Design/Methodology/Approach – The research technique was carried out using a normally distributed data technique with Pearson correlation and if not normal with Spearman correlation (the p value used was 0.05). The samples were taken from data of five large purchasing countries of coffee commodities from East Java Province. These countries are Egypt, Japan, Philippine, Malaysia and Italy. Findings – The results of the research show that the trend of East Java's export movement has a fairly strong correlation with Philippine, The Philippines is a former Spanish colony for almost 300 years, therefore Spanish culture has a strong influence on lifestyle of Filipino society. The culture is form a belief and heritage from generation to generation. Conclusion and Implications – There is a fairly strong correlation looking at the movement of trends in East Java's export realization and the value of exports to Philippine related to coffee exports by East Java. Recommendations for this research are for the East Java Regional Government to develop coffee commodity exports to former Spanish colonies such as Mexico, Colombia, Cuba, Argentina, Chile, Peru, Ecuador, Venezuela and others.

This article is based upon the premise that there existed in nineteenth-century Spanish culture a consciousness of empire that has gone largely unnoticed by literary criticism and historiography. The article sets out to define that consciousness and propose a new framework for the study of turn-of-the-century Spanish culture; to this end, it examines texts by three authors in which the complex question of empire is clearly documented. Eduardo López Bago, Vicente Blasco Ibáñez, and Miguel de Unamuno exemplify the plurality and variety that existed among writers in Spain with regard to the colonial question and, in their turn, demonstrate the complexity that marks references to and writing about the empire. Insofar as El separatista by López Brago is a clear example of what may be called 'the literature of empire', the analysis of this novel reveals the way in which the imperialist imagination functioned in the last third of the nineteenth century. Blasco Ibáñez's articles opposing the Spanish colonial wars illustrate the complexities and ambiguities that existed in Spain with regard to the colonial project, even among the most radical intellectuals of the time. The only voice in the literary world that denounced Spanish colonialism was that of Unamuno in his 'Epilogue' to Vida y escritos del Dr José Rizal de Wenceslao Reatana. The reading offered in this article of these three authors' texts suggests new approaches to the study of the cultural production in turn-of-the-century Spain.

INTRODUCTION In the history of the Atlantic, the literature on the French, British, Spanish, and Portuguese empires continue to dominate the body of historical writing. Yet the Atlantic activities of these nations differed considerably from those of the smaller ones. The larger nations could create their own section in the Atlantic economy, whereas this was impossible to achieve for the smaller nations. Rather than building up a network of transatlantic migration movements of both Europeans and Africans and integrating these with the trade in European, African, and New World goods, the smaller nations first established trade connections on the African coast, mainly trading in produce. Attempts at entering the transatlantic slave trade were more difficult, and the same applied to the trade in European migrants. Only the Dutch and the Danes were able to establish colonies in the West Indies for any length of time, and only the Dutch and the Swedes established colonies of settlement in mainland North America, albeit for a very short period. The oldest Atlantic empires are those of the Spanish and the Portuguese, which, in spite of their synchronous development, were radically different from one another. The Spanish Empire in the New World was self-contained, whereas Portuguese Brazil was geared to producing products for export destined for Europe and Africa. The Spanish created a string of settlement areas in the New World in which European settlers and the autochthonous population mixed. Exports to Europe were limited to high-value products such as precious metals.

Di Hu's The Fabric of Resistance: Textile Workshops and the Rise of Rebellious Landscapes in Colonial Peru analyzes how obrajes (textile workshops) and haciendas (large landed estates) located in Pomacocha, in the Peruvian province of Vilcashuamán in the modern region of Ayacucho, facilitated Indigenous peoples' social landscapes. The author explores this through an innovative methodological approach that draws from “archaeology, history, architecture, demography, GIS/spatial analysis, and social network analysis” (p. 8). The author applies this methodology to examine records that include census data, diagrams of architecture, maps, legal cases, royal reports, and ledgers, to name a few of her primary sources. Hu argues that Ayacucho's Amerindian groups maintained their social landscape after being forced to relocate to new provinces under the Inca and then expanded these relationships under Spanish colonial rule, which led to an increase in rebellions in the central Andes toward the end of the eighteenth century and during the early nineteenth.To support her argument, Hu organizes The Fabric of Resistance into five succinct and well-balanced chapters that proceed in chronological order. Hu uses works from James C. Scott and Fernand Braudel to establish that although revolutions rarely occur, and are typically suppressed quickly when they do, “weapons of the weak” emerged continually to undermine hegemonic rule. Yet many scholars dismiss these events because they do not often lead to a change in regime. Hu challenges this dismissal and suggests that over a longue durée these purportedly minor actions “inform short-term events like rebellions” (p. 3). Hu explores Inca imperialism in her first chapter and the Inca labor systems that the Spanish adopted during colonial rule. The Inca forced Indigenous workers (mitmaqkuna) to relocate to new regions to help integrate newly acquired territories into the empire. Hu shows that under the Inca and the Spanish these forced laborers re-created their former social landscapes in the new territory. The Indigenous Andeans relied on these methods that influenced future generations residing in and around Pomacocha under Spanish colonialism. In Hu's second chapter, she emphasizes how Indigenous people in the Andes supported each other through these social landscapes during times of unrest, especially after major earthquakes and the epidemics that led to the death of thousands of Indigenous people in the early eighteenth century.Chapter 3 emphasizes the effect that spatial and social control had on the Indigenous workers in the Pomacocha obrajes. The author shows that when a new foreman came into the obraje, any alterations to custom (costumbre) threatened textile production. Additionally, Hu contends that food customs helped establish strong kinship bonds between different Indigenous groups laboring in the workshops. Hu's fourth chapter explores the apex of the Bourbon reforms. The author's principal focus in this chapter is how King Charles III's economic and social policies led to an increase of open rebellions in the Andes at the start of the 1760s, which culminated with the Tupac Amaru II revolt from 1780 to 1782. While the Indigenous population of Pomacocha did not participate in this rebellion, it had a lasting impact on these individuals, who took up arms against the crown in the nineteenth century.In Hu's final chapter, she shows that the Pomacocha obraje served as a pivotal staging area for Simón Bolívar and his forces. More importantly, however, Hu examines how and why the Indigenous laborers decided to support Bolívar's revolution. To answer these questions, Hu explores the identity of the Morochucos, or the Indigenous and mestizo inhabitants of the Vilcashuamán area of Ayacucho. This group proved pivotal in gaining Peru's independence from Spain. She establishes the group's evolution through a demographic analysis of surnames. The Fabric of Resistance's short conclusion suggests that the connections between Indigenous resistance in Pomacocha during the colonial period contribute to our understanding of the hacienda workers who rebelled against the hacendados (owners of haciendas) in the mid-twentieth century.Numerous historians have explored the topic of Indigenous resistance against Spanish colonialism and the aftermath of these revolts in the Andes. Several notable works in this historiography include Steve J. Stern's Peru's Indian Peoples and the Challenge of Spanish Conquest: Huamanga to 1640 (1982), Alberto Flores Galindo's Buscando un inca: Identidad y utopía en los Andes (1986), Charles Walker's Smoldering Ashes: Cuzco and the Creation of Republican Peru, 1780–1840 (1999), and Cecilia Méndez's The Plebeian Republic: The Huanta Rebellion and the Making of the Peruvian State, 1820–1850 (2005), to name a few. Like these works, Hu's The Fabric of Resistance should be considered essential reading for archaeologists, geographers, and especially historians interested in rebellions and revolutions and their aftermath in the colonial Andes.

This article examines extracts relating to the period 1636–1638 in Taiwan, when the Spanish occupied two settlements in northern Taiwan, one of them being abandoned in 1637. These fragments reveal fresh perspectives on Taiwan as a stepping stone between the Philippines, the Ryukyu islands, and mainland China, giving rare first-hand accounts of the perils of journeys to these places from Taiwan’s Spanish settlements in the 1630s. The extracts also reveal fresh aspects to Spanish relationships with Taiwan’s Indigenous people. These descriptions add to arguments that the Indigenous people had a significant influence on the departure of the Spanish from the island. The fragmentary details in these texts give further evidence of the multinational exchange that took place during those years. To analyse these fragments, a thematic analysis places them at the centre of discussions, to explore what they add to existing knowledge about the settlements during those years.