Differences in Agricultural Support between Countries – The OECD Measurement

Greater and greater attention is being paid to air pollution problems, because of their negative impact on the environment and human health. This article measures energy efficiency, carbon dioxide emissions efficiency, and particulate matter (PM2.5) concentration efficiency to compare the energy efficiency differences between Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) member countries and non-OECD member countries from 2010 to 2014 using a metafrontier dynamic Data Envelopment Analysis model. We calculate technology gap ratio and input and output efficiency values to measure the energy efficiencies of each economy, finding that (a) OECD countries have a technology gap ratio of 1 or very close to 1; and except for the United Arab Emirates and Singapore, both of which exhibit annual improvements, the non-OECD countries have a significant need for efficiency improvements; (b) the average technology gap ratio of OECD is higher than that of non-OECD countries; that is, while OECD countries’ technology gap ratio (TGR) changes are relatively stable, non-OECD countries’ TGRs are gradually increasing; (c) non-OECD countries have large PM2.5 concentration efficiency gaps, with the annual efficiencies in China, India, and Nepal being less than 0.2; (d) Switzerland, Denmark, France, the United Kingdom, Iceland, Luxembourg, Norway, the United States, and the United Arab Emirates all have new and traditional energy efficiency values of 1; and (e) Botswana, Algeria, and Cambodia have poor traditional energy efficiencies, but better new energy efficiencies, whereas Hungary, South Korea, Slovakia, and Slovenia have poor new energy efficiencies and better traditional energy efficiencies.

In the past dozen years, the Internet has become a major source of information for modern social and economic history. Given the overwhelming abundance of these sources, it is useful for researchers who want to take advantage of these data to have finding guides, in the style of the older guides prepared for individual archives. It is our aim in this first essay to provide such a guide for Internet sources on Brazilian history.The primary material now available on the Web tends to be of the highest quality. Although much qualitative material produced directly for the Web is of dubious reliability, most of the statistical and graphic materials available were generated by the agencies that gather and produce this material for Brazil and are the same as those available in print. Often, the data provided are more complete than can be obtained in any print-based archive. One potential problem with using Web materials is determining the source of data, in order to judge its quality. International agencies, foreign governments, and NGOs are involved in producing social and economic data on Brazil. Much of this information is usually of the same high quality as that generated by Brazilian government agencies; the data is either generated by these non-Brazilian government agencies or taken directly from the primary Brazilian producing institutions. In some cases, secondary agencies such as the UN’s FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization) provide more detailed information than Brazilian governmental sources. But in some cases, as with the World Bank and some other UN agencies, these data may conflict with information produced in Brazil, either because they have used Brazilian data that is out-of-date or rely on their own estimates, which may not be as accurate as the most current governmental statistics. In these cases, we recommend relying on the original Brazilian materials.It should be stressed that the Brazilian government, at all levels and across its various agencies, maintains these Web sites free or charge to all users, with no need to register, obtain a subscription, or pay a fee. The only exception is the subscriptions gateway maintained by CAPES, intended for Brazilian scholars who need access to subscription pay sites outside Brazil (http://www.periodicos.capes.gov.br). This open access is not the norm for many European and UN Web sites, which often require formal registration and sometimes charge usage fees. I have included this in my descriptions and suggest access through your local university.In comparison with most other countries, Brazil’s research institutes and government agencies both produce excellent quantitative materials and make them available on the Web. Most Brazilian Web sites offer good search functions, a crucial component of any site, and usually make it easy to download materials in either text, PDF, HTML, or spreadsheet formats (from generic CSV to Excel and Lotus). Maps and other graphic materials are becoming ever more abundant, usually provided in standard graphic compression formats (most often as JPEG or GIF files) or imbedded in PDF files. Almost all governmental Web sites also provide excellent links that can be used to expand the search for materials in other national and international agencies and organizations. Some sites offer a complete gateway (“portal” in Portuguese) that leads in a coherent way to subagencies or institutions within a given area.In providing this guide, we have grouped Web sites into sources that produce the original data and then grouped these and other institutions into broad social and economic categories. In each case we provide the Web site for the institution producing the data. But as anyone who has done Web searches knows, URLs often change or disappear. In these cases we recommend using a search engine such as Google to find the new addresses. Finally, for grammatical reasons, some of the URLs listed below end in a period in this document. But for searching purposes this period should be removed as they are not part of the Internet address.1. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE), http://www.ibge.gov.br, the federal government’s national statistical bureau and clearly the single-most important Brazilian institution producing social, economic, and geographical data. IBGE’s site has a very useful links section, with lists of federal, state, and municipal government home pages, as well as federal, state, and municipal university sites. It also contains sources for geographic information and gives URLs for international organizations that provide information relevant to Brazil. Researchers can either download summary tables from the site or, through their special service SIDRA (see below), create their own tables of economic and social information taken from IBGE’s various censuses and surveys of population, the economy, and even of households (the famous PNAD surveys). The ability to generate personalized datasets is a very useful and unusual feature of this site.2. Ministério da Educação, http://www.mec.gov.br, offers general information on education, as well as access to several other important federal government agencies that work in this area, such as Fundo Nacional de Desenvolvimento da Educação (FNDE), the Conselho Nacional de Educação (CFE), the Fundo do Ensino Fundamental (FUNDEF), the Coordenação e Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal do Ensino Superior (CAPES), the Fundescola, and the Instituto Nacional de Estudos e Pesquisas Educacionais (INEP).The INEP is the research branch of the ministry, and their site (http://www.inep.gov.br/default.asp) offers a great variety of information, including formal educational censuses.3. Ministério da Previdência e Assistência Social (Social Services and Welfare), http://www.mpas.gov.br/#, provides information concerning welfare, work accidents, and even annual census materials related to these themes, especially under the section “Estatísticas.”4. Ministério da Saúde (Health), http://www.datasus.gov.br/, offers data related to public health and other social concerns. The ministry also administers an excellent gateway to all other agencies in Brazil dealing with health: http://portal.saude.gov.br/saude/.5. Banco Central do Brasil, http://www.bacen.gov.br, is a valuable source of primary information on the Brazilian economy that can be accessed through “Sistema Financeiro Nacional” and “Informações Econômicas e Financeiras” and offers general statistics on the economy and financial systems, with dozens of statistical series, short-term economic indicators, and macroeconomic information. The institution also generates numerous publications, including periodicals, special studies, and technical notes. The Central Bank’s data is notable for its quality and frequency. The Central Bank also provides information on the expanding agricultural sector, with statistics relative to various agricultural markets and public and private financing. Finally, it offers a gateway in both English and Portuguese, at http://www.bb.com.br/appbb/portal/index.jsp.6. Ministério da Fazenda (Treasury), http://www.fazenda.gov.br, contains much economic information, including data on the public debt and fiscal information, and an excellent set of links. The ministry also has legislative information, including acts related to the Treasury. Here one can also find copies of all the agreements signed between Brazil and the IMF.7. Caixa Econômica Federal (Federal Savings Bank), http://www.caixa.gov.br; through its “Fundo de Garantia por Tempo de Serviço,” the Caixa is the principal source of funding in the areas of Housing and Sanitation. Its site provides qualitative information on its programs, as well as relevant legislation. Unfortunately, the site offers no statistical information.8. Ministério do Planejamento, Controle e Gestão (Planning), http://www.planejamento.gov.br, presents general information concerning long-term federal investments, budget outlays, and principal programs. It also offers information on the relation of the federal government to international agencies and the administration of federal state enterprises. It offers links to a large number of national and international public agencies. The best social and economic research center in Brazil—IPEA—is located within this ministry but is discussed separately below (see section 4.2).9. Ministério da Agricultura, http://www.agricultura.gov.br/, is a very useful site with information on the production and commercialization of agricultural products. It also gives access to dozens of federal and state agencies on agriculture and food supply. A subsection of the ministry is the Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária (EMBRAPA), one of the principal research centers in the country, http://www.embrapa.br. The site offers access to the fundamental “Base de Dados da Pesquisa Agropecuária de 2002,” which gives the latest statistical information (http://bdpa.cnptia.embrapa.br). Information on family agriculture can be found at http://gipaf.cnptia.embrapa.br. A virtual library with emphasis on agriculture can be accessed at http://www.sct.embrapa.br/liv/. Here one also finds the “Rede Nacional de Meteorologia,” offering information on climate and agricultural regions: http://masrv54.agricultura.gov.br/rna.10. Ministério do Trabalho e Emprego (Labor and Employment), http://www.mte.gov.br, contains information on unemployment insurance, annual employment figures in the private sector, and retirement plans from the Fundo de Garantia por Tempo de Serviço (FGTS). The “Estatísticas” section offers statistical materials on themes such as the “Relação Anual de Informações Sociais,” which gives annual data sent by private companies that contract workers. The site also presents employment and unemployment data from the “Salário Desemprego” and the “Sistema Nacional de Emprego (SINE),” data on work-related accidents, and other information related to workers.11. Ministério do Desenvolvimento Indústria e Comércio Exterior (Indus trial Development and Foreign Commerce), http://www.mdic.gov.br/default.asp, provides information on foreign trade, costs of production in various economic sectors, and research on productivity in general. It reproduces material from its Anuário Estatístico da Secretaria de Desenvolvimento da Produção on the Gross Domestic Product (PIB), as well as employment data for the industrial sector. This site also has a gateway to agencies that with deal with inter-industrial productive relations.A subsection of this ministry is the National Economic and Social Development Bank (Banco Nacional de Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social, BNDES, which has an excellent site at http://www.bndes.gov.br. “Estudos e Publicações” presents statistical studies concerning the principal economic sectors, especially related to basic inputs and infrastructure, as well as material on social and urban development. The BNDES, as the administrator of the national program of privatization, also furnishes important information on this theme.The IBGE offers a very detailed listing of summary statistics and maps for every municipality in the country, showing the latest population, economic, and social data, at http://www.ibge.gov.br/cidadesat/default.php.Many of the states’ own statistical agencies maintain excellent Internet sites. São Paulo’s Fundação Sistema Estadual de Análise de Dados (SEADE), http://www.seade.gov.br, provides basic statistics on the state’s population and economy and direct access to the “Memória das Estatísticas Demográficas,” http://www.seade.gov.br/500anos, which presents, among other types of information, demographic statistics on the state’s municípios over the past one hundred years, along with useful historical maps. The SEADE site also offers links to all of Brazil’s state statistical agencies—for example, the Centro de Informações e Dados do Rio de Janeiro (Fundação CIDE), http://www.cide.rj.gov.br, and the Fundação João Pinheiro do Governo de Minas Gerais, http://www.fjp.gov.br.The IBGE site also offers links to many municipal governments, but there is also a special gateway to all municípios, Municípionline, at http://www.municipionline.com.br. http://brasilchannel.com.br/municipios serves a similar purpose. Finally “Rede Governo,” http://www.redegoverno.gov.br, functions as a gateway to numerous government agencies and services at all levels, including to Brazilian legislation.1. Under the section “População,” the IBGE site presents a series of statistical information, primarily demographic in nature. The two most important are the results from the last two national censuses, 1991 and 2000. This sectional also offers much information on health, education, labor force activity, and even sanitation, disaggregated at the national, state, and municipal levels. Another important subsection contains information from the famous household surveys—the Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios, or PNAD, which has been systematically gathered from a very large national sample since the 1960s and is one of the most important periodical surveys carried out in Brazil. These surveys collect detailed information on income, employment, and housing, as well as educational and demographic data. Many of the earlier surveys are now available on CD, and data from the 2001 PNAD are already available on the Web. Vital statistics are found in the subsection “Estatisticas de Registro Civil,” which contains data on births, deaths, marriages, and divorce/separation for 1997–98 and 1999–2000. Life tables (“tabua de vida”) are available for 2000 and 2001. Finally, the latest population estimates and projections, made in 2000 and projecting basic demographic indices through 2050, can be obtained through FTP.One can link from the main IBGE site to their special Web program, SIDRA (“Sistema IBGE de Recuperação Automática”), at http://www.sidra.ibge.gov.br/bda. As mentioned earlier, this system allows users to create their own tables of selected data, controlling its tabular presentation, level of desegregation, and geographic scope. The tables created can either be viewed as HTML to cut- and-paste, or saved as a file in various formats.1 SIDRA contains both demographic and economic and social data2. Núcleo de Estudos em Demografia Histórica (NEDH), http://members.tripod.com/~Historia_Demografica/INDEX.HTM, publishes an online journal, as well as important bibliographic information and working papers. “Rol On-Line: Relação de Trabalhos Publicados na Área de História Demográfica” contains bibliographic citations and hundreds of summaries of articles.3. Associação Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais (ABEP), http://www.abep.org.br, offers access to numerous demographic studies, as well as links to other national and international institutions that have an interest in Brazilian demographic conditions.4. Centro de Documentação (CENDOC) do Núcleo de Estudos da Popu-lação (NEPO), http://www.unicamp.br/nepo, provides qualitative information and access to bibliographic data and studies produced by the researchers of the center. It also possesses a link to listings of similar institutions.5. Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago de Chile, (ECLAC/CEPAL), http://www.eclac.cl, is an important UN regional agency providing fundamental comparative economic and social information. Access to its more-detailed statistical information (as with most UN agencies) may require a university subscription. However, their important studies, many of which have very detailed statistical information, are available in PDF format. Their most important publication is the Statistical Yearbook for Latin America and the Caribbean, a fundamental source of excellent materials. They also publish special reports, such as Foreign Investment in Latin America and the Caribbean—2002 Report, and Social Panorama of Latin America 2001–2002. CEPAL is also the parent for the Centro Latinamericano y Caribeño de Demografía (CELADE), http://www.eclac.cl/celade/. CELADE works closely with all the Latin American government statistical agencies, including IBGE. Its site contains excellent demographic information, and the agency publishes the Boletín Demográfico, which can be accessed online and which normally concentrates on a different theme each issue (urbanization, for example). An examination of the CELADE publications list shows around 2,500 documents, reports, and publications related to Brazil.6. The United Nations Population Division, http://www.un.org/popin, is the best source for international demographic materials, some of which go back to the mid–twentieth century, but requires a university subscription for access. The Population Division also produced An Historical Supplement covering world and country data from 1948–97, available on CD-ROM. The organization collects data on housing, vital statistics, and social indicators, along with information about migration, urbanization, refugees, and so on.7. The World Health Organization of the United Nations can best be used through its WHOSIS search engine (WHO Statistical Information System), http://www3.who.int/whosis/menu.cfm. The WHO also can lead one to the regional health organization PAHO (Pan American Health Organization), http://www.paho.org/default.htm. Data can be found at the section called “Health Data.”8. U.S. Census Bureau, International Program Center, http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/index.html, contains information on Brazil and the other countries of Latin America. A list of publications is available at http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idbnew.html.9. IPUMS International, http://www.ipums.umn.edu/international/index.shtml, at the University of Minnesota, is currently generating public-use samples (of individuals) from Latin American censuses in the twentieth century, available in either SAS or SPSS format.10. Institut National d’Études Démographique (INED), http://www.ined.fr/population-en-chiffres/indexF.html, maintains a great quantity of demographic information from all the countries of the world.11. Max Plank Institute, http://www.demogr.mpg.de, and the University of California at Berkeley, Department of Demography, maintain an online historical mortality database. This excellent source for nineteenth- and twentieth-century age, sex, birth, death, and life-expectancy tables for many European and American countries is available at http://www.mortality.org. Along with INED, these two institutions also maintain a life table for world populations at The World Bank offers statistics on Brazil and other Latin American at under and and some dealing with Brazil. This section can only be used through a university subscription. is also an that presents statistical series on economic as well as research The an important online guide for and demographic research on Brazil. This listing is complete and contains a large number of important The of Population of University presents an on demographic themes under its The University of Population Center, maintains a very listing of working papers. 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Geographical Indications (GI) are agricultural products of high economic value that play an important role in Indonesia's economic development. However, the potential for rights abuse requires protection through adequate Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) regulations. This study aims to analyse international regulations related to GI, evaluate the implementation of GI protection in the Trademark Law for agricultural IPR products in Indonesia, and formulate an effective sui generis IPR regime model to protect agricultural products while supporting national economic development. The study uses a normative juridical approach with a comparative analysis of international and national regulations and a study of IPR and GI theory to formulate a comprehensive regime model. The research findings show that international regulations through Paris, Madrid, Lisbon, and TRIPs provide the basis for GI protection. However, sui generis models such as the European Union or India are more suitable for Indonesia because they can protect cultural diversity and agricultural products while supporting economic development. Second, implementing GI in the Trademark Law in Indonesia is inadequate due to registration disparities, weak quality and reputation maintenance mechanisms, and complaint-based law enforcement, so specific and compelling sui generis regulations are needed. Third, an adequate sui generis IPR regime model is structured around five pillars: simple, participatory digital registration, product quality and reputation standards, collective rights protection, proactive law enforcement through general offences, and integration into national economic development strategies, with philosophical, legal, and sociological foundations. The study concludes that a sui generis IPR regime can enhance agricultural GI protection and support sustainable economic development. The study's limitations relate to the lack of empirical implementation in the field. The research's implications guide regulators in developing a more effective GI regime. The research's originality value lies in integrating international and local perspectives to build a comprehensive sui generis IPR regime for agricultural products in Indonesia.

Research objective. Scientific research raises the problem of state support of peasant farms in Russia, consisting in disproportions in the structure of the budget subsidies of farmers, showing that a significant proportion of directions and types of budgetary allocations is provided by state support for lending to agricultural production. On the one hand, this measure is directed to activization of agrarian policy on attraction of additional loan sources of financing. On the other hand, at insufficient interest of financial structures in agricultural industry, weak competitiveness of landowners with the banking sector, low availability of credit resources to the most part of producers, the specified support measures only promote growth of debt load of major agricultural firms and limit farmers in obtaining budgetary funds that does not increase their special legal status and the importance for agrarian economy, does not add social importance for rural territories, does not lead to increase in the general effectiveness in agricultural production and does not promote efficiency to use the means of support, and, therefore, demands formation basic other more effective approach to subsidizing of small farms in the village. Therefore, a research objective is justification and development of strategic models of structure optimization of the budgetary support of peasant farms, taking into account efficiency of measures, which relevance is confirmed by scientific research of the leading scientists in this subject area. Materials and methods. The study used: data of state programs on agricultural industry during 2008-2012 and 2013–2020; analytical materials of national reports of their realization; statistical information resources of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation; consolidated, individual financial and economic reports on agricultural producers of Penza region, which are processed by the methods of logical analytics, structural diagnostics, methodological synthesis of scientific research, the quantitative analysis and other economic-mathematical tools with the use of application programs of SPSS statistical package and mathematical Mathcad package. Results. As part of the research econometric models of influence of the budget transfers on results of agrarian activity and development of peasant farms in terms of forms and types of the state subsidies, where functional dependences of revenues and profits from subsidies, allocated to support farmers are defined by 90% and 70% respectively, at the same time the budget transfers have the positive impact on the specified financial results. Based on the received coefficients of regression the model of structure optimization of the state support of farmers, which proceeds from maximizing a share of revenue from agricultural industry in a gross regional product, is constructed. Conclusion. In the new look the structure of the state support of peasant farms will allow to increase greatly effect of use of budgetary funds, to increase efficiency of agricultural production, to increase the economic importance of country farms, to keep the social status of rural territories.

HIV vaccine development remains an urgent priority. Vaccine preparedness studies to assess feasibility are an important precursor to HIV vaccine trials. Studies such as these have taken place in many non-Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (non-OECD) countries using diverse cohorts. This article is a systematic review of retention rates and willingness to participate (WTP) in HIV vaccine trials. Studies took place in Brazil, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Haiti, India, Russia, Thailand, and several sub-Saharan African countries. Studies generally reported recruitment of high-risk individuals. Of 33 studies we identified, retention was assessed in 16 studies, and the 12-month retention ranged from 77 to 85%. Willingness to participate was assessed in 21 studies. Willingness to participate ranged from 23 to 100%, and increased knowledge was associated with an increased WTP. Vaccine preparedness studies have taken place using diverse cohorts in the non-OECD countries. In general, retention rates and WTP have been adequate to conduct HIV vaccine trials. Educational programs to improve knowledge about HIV vaccines may contribute to better follow-up and an increased WTP in these countries.

PurposeThe principles of public value management (PVM) have greatly inspired public management practitioners and scholars, but the application of these ideas to the everyday practice and research of government has proven to be more difficult. This article formulates propositions for how the principles of PVM could affect one of the core processes of government: budgeting. These propositions can inspire practitioners and be tested by future researchers.Design/methodology/approachThe article identifies the core principles of PVM and applies these to the budgeting functions of the allocation, management and accountability of public money. This exploration leads to a first conceptualization of “public value budgeting” and generates 12 propositions about how budgeting will change and remain unaltered under the influence of PVM.FindingsThe central argument is that “public value budgeting” could promote more coordination and integration between public funds and community resources, more involvement of societal stakeholders in the budgetary process and more continuous tweaks and changes to the budget. At the same time, legislative vetoes, financial controls and debates about the best use of public money will remain an important feature of public budgeting.Originality/valueThe article forwards the first conceptualization of public value budgeting, connects the literatures on public value and public budgeting, and offers both a practical application of PVM to public budgeting as well as a concrete agenda for future research.

The aim of the article is to study the peculiarities of the domestic system of state financial support of agricultural producers and highlight on this basis the conceptual approaches to the formation of the mechanism of state financial support of agricultural producers with the definition of its key elements. Based on the analysis of normative legal acts, the peculiarities of providing state financial support to agricultural producers throughout the period of Ukraine’s independence were clarified and the evolutionary transformation of forms of such support was established. It was found that for a long time financial support to agricultural producers was provided mainly in the form of indirect support, based on the use of a system of tax benefits (there was a special tax regime in the form of a fixed agricultural tax and a special value added tax regime). Only in recent years, after the abolition of the special regime of value added tax, direct support for agricultural producers became a priority. Analysis of the effectiveness of state support for agriculture, based on data from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, shows that compared to EU countries, the level of state financial support for agricultural producers in Ukraine remains quite low, and the assessment of support indicates its inefficiency. In order to solve the problems of ensuring the effectiveness of state financial support for agricultural producers, the feasibility of forming a mechanism of state financial support for agricultural producers is substantiated, conceptual approaches to its construction and content are identified and key elements are identified. Based on the author's approach to understanding the concept of "mechanism" and highlighted domestic features of providing state financial support to agricultural producers, the author's interpretation of the concept of "mechanism of state financial support of agricultural producers" is proposed. This a mechanism is a system of financial relations that arise between the state and agricultural producers in the relevant institutional environment, based on certain principles and conditions, provide for the use of forms and tools that can stimulate agricultural production and provide favorable conditions for agricultural development.

This article uses data from 41 OECD and nonOECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries to examine the predictions of nonscale endogenous growth theories that an increase in the share of researchers in labour force leads to an increase in innovation and innovation raises per capita output. The results show that an increase in the share of researchers in labour force increases innovation only in the large market OECD countries. Moreover, an increase in innovation raises per labour GDP (Gross Domestic Product) in all nonOECD countries except for low income countries, while raising it only in the high-income OECD countries. These findings suggest that though the large market OECD countries are the world leader in innovation, nonOECD countries benefit more from it in promoting their growth.

The current state of technical and technological support of agriculture in Ukraine and some European countries is studied, its economic aspects are analyzed. It is established that the processes of reforming agricultural enterprises have caused a crisis in the formation of their technical and technological base and, as a result, a decrease in the number of technical means in most agricultural enterprises. The decrease in the number of main types of agricultural machinery per unit area is primarily due to an increase in its capacity, the introduction of innovative solutions in crop cultivation technologies and changes in the structure of their sown areas. Research results have shown that similar trends are observed in other countries. It was found that the level of arable land load per tractor and grain area per combine harvester in Ukraine is the highest among European countries. When completing a machine and tractor fleet, agricultural producers prefer high-powered tractors, which are optimal for cultivating large areas. Structural changes in the technical support of Ukrainian agriculture indicate that the reduction in the number of machinery is a natural reaction of agricultural producers to the increase in its productivity. The decrease in the number of technical means in agricultural enterprises is not a sign of a reduction in technical potential, but rather indicates problems in the domestic agricultural machinery industry and insufficient market development. Even if agricultural producers are willing to buy and use domestic machinery, their production volumes do not meet the needs. The current development of the agricultural machinery industry in Ukraine is also negatively affected by full-scale military operations. In order to overcome the identified problems of technical support of agricultural production, especially its active part, the ways of its improvement in agricultural enterprises are proposed, including quantitative and qualitative growth of technical means necessary for timely and highquality performance of a complex of field works using innovative technologies. Proposals are made to eliminate the problems of technical support of the industry by means of state regulation.

Agricultural production and productivity are critical for global food security and economic development. However, numerous challenges, including climate change, resource scarcity, and market volatility, threaten to undermine agricultural progress. This paper explores key aspects of agricultural production and productivity analysis, highlighting critical challenges and outlining promising future directions. Agricultural production and productivity analysis are a crucial field for understanding and improving food security, economic development, and environmental sustainability. Addressing the challenges facing agricultural production and productivity requires a multi-pronged approach that integrates technological innovation, policy reforms, and social and economic development. By focusing on climate-smart agriculture, precision farming, and capacity building, we can enhance agricultural sustainability, improve food security, and ensure a prosperous future for all.

Nonfarm Activities and Household Production Choices in Smallholder Agriculture in Vietnam

To understand the impacts of support programs on global emissions, this paper considers the impacts of domestic subsidies, price distortions at the border, and investments in emission-reducing technologies on global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture. In a step towards a full evaluation of the impacts, it uses a counterfactual global model scenario showing how much emissions from agricultural production would change if agricultural support were abolished worldwide. The analysis indicates that, without subsidies paid directly to farmers, output of some emission-intensive activities and agricultural emissions would be smaller. Without agricultural trade protection, however, emissions would be higher. This is partly because protection reduces global demand more than it increases global agricultural supply, and partly because some countries that currently tax agriculture have high emission intensities. Policies that directly reduce emission intensities yield much larger reductions in emissions than those that reduce emission intensities by increasing overall productivity because overall productivity growth creates a rebound effect by reducing product prices and expanding output. A key challenge is designing policy reforms that effectively reduce emissions without jeopardizing other key goals such as improving nutrition and reducing poverty. While the scenario analysis in this paper does not propose any particular policy reform, it does provide an important building block towards a full understanding the impacts of repurposed agricultural support measures on mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions and adaptation to climate change. That full analysis is being undertaken in subsequent work, which will also take account of land-use change and alternative forms of agricultural policy support to align objectives of food security, farmers’ income security, production efficiency and resilience, and environmental protection.

To understand the impacts of support programs on global emissions, this paper considers the impacts of domestic subsidies, price distortions at the border, and investments in emission-reducing technologies on global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture. In a step towards a full evaluation of the impacts, it uses a counterfactual global model scenario showing how much emissions from agricultural production would change if agricultural support were abolished worldwide. The analysis indicates that, without subsidies paid directly to farmers, output of some emission-intensive activities and agricultural emissions would be smaller. Without agricultural trade protection, however, emissions would be higher. This is partly because protection reduces global demand more than it increases global agricultural supply, and partly because some countries that currently tax agriculture have high emission intensities. Policies that directly reduce emission intensities yield much larger reductions in emissions than those that reduce emission intensities by increasing overall productivity because overall productivity growth creates a rebound effect by reducing product prices and expanding output. A key challenge is designing policy reforms that effectively reduce emissions without jeopardizing other key goals such as improving nutrition and reducing poverty. While the scenario analysis in this paper does not propose any particular policy reform, it does provide an important building block towards a full understanding the impacts of repurposed agricultural support measures on mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions and adaptation to climate change. That full analysis is being undertaken in subsequent work, which will also take account of land-use change and alternative forms of agricultural policy support to align objectives of food security, farmers’ income security, production efficiency and resilience, and environmental protection.

The article presents the results of a study on current problems of reforming the international financial architecture under the expanding crisis phenomena of a financial nature and the vulnerability of financial markets and public finances to sharp economies political and geopolitical changes. The meta-statistics are aimed at identifying the main institutional fundamentals of the reform of international financial organizations in the context of the transformation of mutual relations with certain neighboring groups of countries and their impact on the socio-economic development in Ukraine and Kazakhstan. Systematized the main guidelines in the transformation of international financial architecture, such as: reform of certain international organizations; changes in the policy of cooperation between individual countries and international financial organizations, transformation of the latter’s influence; creation of a global institution based on international multilateral agreements; strengthening the regulatory mechanisms of international financial law and increasing the responsibilities of national regulators for the functioning of individual segments of financial markets; facilitating reforms of the global financial architecture to achieve the goals of global development and climate change; creation of new international financial institutions etc. The impact of the reforms of international financial organizations on the socio-economic development of Ukraine and Kazakhstan is manifested in the changes in the directions of Kazakhstan’s and Ukraine’s cooperation with modern international institutions, culminating in the updated policy frameworks and special programs for market reform, in ensuring the stability of the national currency, in the solution of socio-economic problems, in financing the deficit of the sovereign budget and in balancing the balance of payments. The allocation of financial resources of a credit and investment nature is accompanied by recommendations on the institutional development of market economy, reforms of the necessary legal framework, development of the private sector and the shaping of a corporate governance system. A comparative analysis of the effectiveness of Kazakhstan’s and Ukraine’s cooperation with international financial organizations allows us to recognize the vulnerability of both countries’ financial systems to crisis phenomena of a global nature, including through the growth of the foreign debt and their weak positions in terms of the EBRD Financial Market Development Index in 2020 compared to the European countries, which became EU members 2004.

Total support to the agricultural sector arising from public policies reached a record USD 817 billion per year in 2019–2021 for the 54 countries1 covered in the OECD Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation 2022 report (Figure 1). However, only a small share of this support was directed at longer-term efforts to combat climate change and other food system challenges. Breakdown of agricultural support, total of 54 countries, 2019–2021 Note: The potentially most distorting forms of support exclude those payments for variable inputs (such as fertiliser) that require constraints to their use (USD 1.7 billion per year). Source: OECD (2022), Producer and Consumer Support Estimates, OECD Agriculture statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/agr-pcse-data-en. Of the total support, USD 500 billion per year was paid by taxpayers from public budgets, with the remaining USD 317 billion per year being transferred by consumers through higher prices (market price support). In a small number of countries, policies also suppress prices for some or all commodities, generating a transfer (an implicit tax) of USD 117 billion away from agricultural producers. In total, USD 391 billion per year was transferred to producers in the potentially most distorting forms of support (market price support and payments based on output or the unconstrained use of variable inputs). Along with forestry and other land use, agricultre represents around 22 per cent of anthropogenic GHG emissions; mainly methane and nitrous oxide from livestock, rice cultivation and fertiliser use, and carbon dioxide emissions through land use change, such as deforestation and carbon losses in agricultural soils. Lower GHG emissions can result from increasing productivity and efficiency in input use, adopting production techniques that reduce emissions, increasing soil carbon sequestration, afforestation and restoration of degraded lands, reducing food losses in the field and on the farm, and providing information and incentives to consumers to choose food with lower emissions intensities and reduce food waste. Current policies include subsidies for the use of variable inputs such as fertilisers, feed and fuel, amounting to USD 60 billion per year in 2019–2021 and directly contributing to GHG emissions. Moreover, support tied to specific commodities still accounts for a large share of gross farm receipts in some countries (Figure 2). Support for livestock products, which tend to have high GHG emissions intensities, amounted to USD 111 billion per year across the 54 countries, and exceeded 10 per cent of gross farm receipts in 5 countries. Breakdown of transfers to specific commodities, 2019–2021 Source: OECD (2022), Producer and Consumer Support Estimates, OECD Agriculture statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/agrpcse-data-en. Despite their importance for achieving food security, climate and other food systems goals, investments in these areas have been falling relative to the size of the sector for most of the past two decades. Overall, support to general services accounted for 13 per cent of total support for the sector in 2019–2021, down from 16 per cent in 2000–2002 (Figure 3). There is therefore considerable scope for reforms that support both food systems objectives and ensure that agriculture contributes to ambitious emissions reduction targets. Public investments in general services, 2019–2021 (percentage of total support to agriculture) Note: ‘Other’ includes the marketing and promotion, cost of public stockholding, and miscellaneous categories of the General Services Support Estimate (GSSE). Source: OECD (2022), “Producer and Consumer Support Estimates”, OECD Agriculture statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/agr-pcse-data-en. The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official views of the OECD or of its Member countries.