Developmental relationships between motor skills and executive functioning in children with intellectual disabilities.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between parent ratings of motor skills and executive function (EF) in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in the United States and Taiwan. One hundred and seventy-two parents/legal guardians of children (4-6 years and 11 months old) with ASD were recruited from two countries, Taiwan (n = 100) and the United States (n = 72). The parents or guardians of the child with ASD completed a questionnaire including demographic information, child's motor skills (using Children Activity Scale - Parents, ChAS-P), and child's EF (using Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory, CHEXI). A series of hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted to determine whether ChAS-P (total motor score, fine motor skills, and gross motor skill) was associated with CHEXI (total EF score, working memory, and inhibition), after controlling for covariates (i.e., age, gender, race, body mass index, whether children received physical activity or cognitive training, parental education level). Total motor skills, fine motor skills, and gross motor skills were significantly associated with EF in both working memory and inhibition as rated by parents in both countries (β = 0.21-0.57, p < 0.01), with the exception of a non-significant association between parent-rated total motor skills, fine motor skills, and gross motor skills, and inhibition among Taiwanese children with ASD. In addition, the associations between parent ratings of motor skills (i.e., fine motor and gross motor skills) and EF (i.e., working memory and inhibition) were similar between the two countries. Positive associations with specific aspects of parent ratings of fine motor and gross motor skills and working memory and inhibition were found in children with ASD from both countries. These findings have implications for future interventions and programs focused on improving early motor skills and EF development for young children with ASD from Taiwan and the United States.

To date, information on associations between motor skills and executive functions (EF) in autistic children is limited. The purpose of this study was to compare motor skills and EF performance between autistic children and typically developing (TD) children and to examine the relationships between motor skills and EF in these two groups. Forty-eight autistic children and 48 TD children aged 6 to 12 years were recruited for this study. Motor skills were measured with the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2 (BOT-2). EF was assessed with the Stroop Color and Word Test, the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST), and the Test of Attentional Performance: Go/No-go test. Independent sample t-tests were used to compare the BOT-2 scores and EF measures between autistic children and TD children. Pearson product-moment correlation and regressions were conducted to assess the relationships between the BOT-2 scores and the EF measures for each group. Results showed that autistic children scored significantly lower than TD children on all four BOT-2 composite scores and a total motor composite. Autistic children also demonstrated significantly lower levels of performance on all EF measures than TD children. Further, autistic children showed more significant associations between motor skills and EF than TD children, particularly pronounced in the domains of fine manual control and manual coordination to cognitive flexibility, as well as manual coordination and inhibitory control. Continued development of motor skills and EF in autistic children is important. The relationships between motor skills and EF were significant among autistic children, suggesting future research on promoting EF through motor skill interventions in autistic children is required.

Objective:Motor skills have been linked to executive functions (EFs) in typically developing school-, and preschool-age children. Yet fine motor skills have been more consistently correlated with EFs than gross motor skills, perhaps because they are more frequently investigated. Preterm born children are vulnerable to deficits in both gross and fine motor skills, even after exclusion of neurological cases. In addition to motor skills, EFs may also be compromised in preterm born preschoolers. Because premature birth increases the odds for atypical brain development, and since adverse effects on brain functioning tend to yield increased dispersion of performance scores, we wished to determine whether fine and gross motor skills are differentially linked to performance on tasks measuring EF skills in nonhandicapped preschoolers born preterm.Participants and Methods:We studied 99 preterm (born &lt; 34 weeks) singleton preschoolers (3-4 years of age; 50 females), all graduates of the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit at William Beaumont Hospital, Royal Oak, MI. Motor skills were assessed with the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales - (Second Edition) which provide Fine and Gross Motor Quotients (FMQ, and GMQ, respectively). Three core EFs were measured: working memory, motor inhibition, and verbal fluency. Working memory skills were assessed with two Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals - Preschool -Second Edition subtests: Recalling Sentences (RS) and Concepts and Following Directions (CFD). Motor inhibition and verbal fluency were assessed with the NEPSY-II Statue and Word Generation (WG) subtests, respectively. Children with a history of moderate to severe intracranial pathology or cerebral palsy were excluded.Results:We conducted linear regression analyses using scaled scores from the Statue, WG, RS, and CFD subtests as the predicted variables. Predictors of interest were the FMQ and GMQ. We adjusted for sociodemographic factors (SES and sex) and perinatal risk (gestational age, sum of antenatal complications and birth weight SD). The GMQ was significantly associated with all four EF measures (Statue, t(84) = 4.13, p &lt; .001; CFD, t(92) = 3.83, p &lt; .001; WG, t(84) = 3.38, p = .001; RS, t(90) = 3.37, p = .001). The FMQ was significantly associated with three of four EF measures (Statue, t(84) = 3.41, p = .001; CFD, t(92) = 3.97, p &lt; .001; WG, t(84) = 1.96, p = .054; RS, t(90) = 2.91, p = .005).Conclusions:Both fine and gross motor skills were associated with EF in nonhandicapped preterm-born singletons. Lower motor functioning in either motor domain was linked to reduction in performance on diverse EF measures. It should be emphasized that motor performance contributed to explaining variance in EFs even after statistical adjustment for early medical risk. In addition to the obvious conclusion that motor skills may underpin EF skills, it is likely that early risk factors not captured by the medical risk variables used in our analyses were nonetheless tapped by variability in motor performance. As preschool EFs are essential for subsequent academic performance, the significance of age-appropriate motor development in the preschool age should not be underestimated in our at-risk population.

Executive Function (EF) is an umbrella term for higher-order cognitive skills, which build the basis for goal-directed behavior. In general, three separable, yet interrelated components are assumed, Inhibition, Working Memory and Shifting. Because of their predictive power for many positive outcomes, they are regarded as crucial competences for coping with various aspects of everyday life. Recent research has found evidence for an interrelation between EF and motor skills. Since both EF and motor skills develop rapidly during early childhood, this age range is of particular interest for research. The dissertation at hand aimed at providing more evidence for (a) age-related increases regarding two “core” Executive Functions, Inhibition and Working Memory, and (b) their proposed interrelation with fine and gross motor skills, both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. The present research project was designed as a 3-year-longitudinal study with annual intervals. 170 normally-developing children between 3 and 6 years of age were tested at the first point of data collection. In the following two years, 109 and 60 children respectively participated again. At each interval, EF was assessed via performance-based tasks and parent ratings and motor skills were assessed via a standardized assessment battery. The analyses of the cross-sectional data collected at the first point of data collection provide further evidence for age-related increases in Inhibition and Working Memory. Furthermore, a Structural Equation Model showed significant interrelations between fine motor skills and both EF components, and substantial, albeit non-significant, correlations between gross motor skills and both domains of EF. The analysis of the longitudinal data stated a significant prediction of Inhibition via gross motor skills one year earlier. Although to a large part exploratory and hypotheses-generating, the results of the research project provide further evidence for an interrelation between EF and motor skills and give rise to the question, whether motor skills can be used in intervention studies aiming at the promotion of EF. However, due to the modicum of research regarding this topic in preschoolers, the results should be regarded first and foremost preliminary.

Domain-specific skills, but not fine-motor or executive function, predict later arithmetic and reading in children

The implication of sleep disturbances on daily executive functioning and learning problems in children with autism without intellectual disability

Relationship between motor and executive functioning in school-age children with pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified

It has been suggested that children with intellectual disabilities (ID) have motor problems and higher-order cognitive deficits. The aim of this study was to examine the motor skills and executive functions in school-age children with borderline and mild ID. The second aim was to investigate the relationship between the two performance domains. Sixty-one children aged between 7 and 12 years diagnosed with borderline ID (33 boys and 28 girls; 71 < IQ < 79) and 36 age peers with mild ID (24 boys and 12 girls; 54 < IQ < 70) were assessed. Their abilities were compared with those of 97 age- and gender-matched typically developing children. Qualitative motor skills, i.e. locomotor ability and object control, were evaluated with the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD-2). Executive functioning (EF), in terms of planning ability, strategic decision-making and problem solving, was gauged with the Tower of London (TOL) task. Compared with the reference group, the full ID cohort scored significantly lower on all assessments. For the locomotor skills, the children with mild ID scored significantly lower than the children with borderline ID, but for the object control skills and the TOL score, no significant differences between the two groups were found. Motor performance and EF correlated positively. At the most complex level, the TOL showed decision time to be a mediator between motor performance and EF: the children with the lower motor scores had significantly shorter decision times and lower EF scores. Analogously, the children with the lower object control scores had longer execution times and lower EF scores. The current results support the notion that besides being impaired in qualitative motor skills intellectually challenged children are also impaired in higher-order executive functions. The deficits in the two domains are interrelated, so early interventions boosting their motor and cognitive development are recommended.

&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Context and relevance.&lt;/strong&gt; The article examines the relationship between motor skills (fine and gross motor skills, motor reaction time) and executive functioning (EF), which is the most important predictor of future academic success. &lt;strong&gt;Objective. &lt;/strong&gt;This experimental study is designed to determine the strength and direction of associations between EF components (planning ability, working memory, inhibitory control) and various motor skills (gross and fine motor skills) in older preschool children. &lt;strong&gt;Hypothesis.&lt;/strong&gt; In preschool children, EF components (planning ability, working memory, inhibitory control) have close associations with various indicators of motor development, but so far, this has not been unambiguously confirmed in experimental studies. &lt;strong&gt;Methods and materials.&lt;/strong&gt; The examination of the participants was conducted within the framework of the project "Study of neurobiological predictors of academic success in children" (Priority 2030) using the hardware and software system SHUHFRIED (Tower of London &amp;ndash; Freiburg version, TOL-F; Motor Learning Skills test, short form according to Sturm and B&amp;uuml;ssing, MLS; Reaction Time test, RT; n = 81, 58 boys, average age 6,42 &amp;plusmn; 0,53 years) and the stabilometric complex ST-150 (65 children, 52 boys, average age 6,4 &amp;plusmn; 0,52 years). &lt;strong&gt;Results&lt;/strong&gt;. According to the correlation analysis of the stabilometry and TOL-F test indices, the lower the gross motor skills (postural stability) indices, the better the planning and working memory indices; however, the inhibitory control index directly correlates with postural stability skills. The results of the fine motor skills and EF tests mostly agree with each other; however, they have lateralization characteristics, and the size of the correlation coefficients does not exceed 0.4. &lt;strong&gt;Conclusions&lt;/strong&gt;. The correlations of the fine motor skills test results with EF are mostly weak. Probably, at the preschool education stage, the impact only on the motor sphere (fine motor skills in particular) is not a sufficient condition for the development of EF. Planning and working memory inversely correlate with the gross motor skills development indices, which probably indicates a reciprocal relationship between individual higher cortical functions and gross motor skills in older preschool age.&lt;/p&gt;

ABSTRACTResearch Findings: This study examined the contributions of motor skills and executive function (EF) to early achievement. Participants were 7,797 children (3,889 girls) between 36 and 72 months of age from 6 countries in East Asia and the Pacific. Fine and gross motor skills, EF, language and literacy achievement, and mathematics achievement were evaluated using the East Asia-Pacific Early Child Development Scales, a tool that assesses child development in 7 domains. Children’s caregivers provided demographic information. There were 3 salient findings. First, gross and fine motor skills predicted both language and literacy and mathematics achievement. Second, in general, fine motor skills contributed more to the prediction of early achievement than gross motor skills. However, there were no differences between the contributions of fine and gross motor skills to the prediction of early language and literacy in Papua New Guinea or early mathematics in Timor-Leste. Third, EF partially mediated the relation between both early achievement and gross and fine motor skills in the overall sample, Cambodia, and Timor-Leste and fully mediated the association of gross motor skills and early achievement in China, Mongolia, Papua New Guinea, and Vanuatu. Practice or Policy: Implications of the findings for early childhood education are discussed.

Purpose: To explore the effects of physical activity (PA) intervention on executive function (EF) and motor skills (MS) among children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and/or autism spectrum disorder (ASD).Methods: Relevant studies were sourced from PubMed, Web of Science, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, CNKI and Wanfang Data. Only randomized controlled trials (RCT) were included based upon the following criteria: (1) participants were children and clinically diagnosed with ADHD/ASD, (2) intervention strategies were identified as chronic physical activity, and (3) EF (e.g., cognitive flexibility) and/or MS (e.g., gross motor skills) were measured at baseline and post-intervention and compared with an eligible control group.Results: Eleven studies involving 346 participants were finally identified. PA elicited significant improvements in EF and MS in children with ADHD/ASD. Regarding changes in the EF of participants, PA showed a great improvement in overall EF [standardized mean difference (SMD): 0.90, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.49–1.30, p < 0.00001], inhibitory control (SMD: 1.30, 95% CI 0.58–2.02, p = 0.0004) and cognitive flexibility (SMD: 0.85, 95% CI 0.42–1.29, p = 0.0001), but no significant improvement in working memory (SMD: 0.28, 95% CI −0.15–0.71, p = 0.20). Significant improvements were also found with respect to gross motor skills (SMD: 0.80, 95% CI 0.30–1.30, p = 0.002), but no significant changes were found in fine motor skills (SMD: 0.30, 95% CI −0.91–1.52, p = 0.62).Conclusion: Chronic PA interventions may promote EF and MS in children with ADHD/ASD, especially in inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and gross motor skills. However, PA interventions seemed to have insignificant effects on working memory and fine motor skills to children with ADHD/ASD.PROSPERO registration number: CRD42019118622

Objectives The aim was to investigate the effects of perceptual-motor exercises on executive functions and motor skills in children with intellectual disabilities Methods A cluster randomized trial was used. An experienced statistician who was not part of the research team used a computer-generated algorithm to randomise matched schools, 1:1 into treatment and control. All students require formal cognitive assessment with an IQ score below 70 and deficits in adaptive functioning. Thirty eight students were selected and randomisely assigned to two groups: experimental (n = 19 students), and control (n = 19 students). Participants were controlled for age, gender and intelligence quotient. An independent t-test was used to compare groups, and a dependent t-test was used to compare pre-and post-test results within groups. Effect sizes were calculated using Cohen’s d-test when significance was found in the between-group pre-test and post-test comparisons. Results The results of the study showed that the selected perceptual-motor training had an effect on improving executive functions in children with intellectual disabilities (ID), and the difference in scores between the experimental group and the control group was significant in the components of executive functions: working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility. Conclusions In general, the findings of the study showed that the implementation of selected perceptual-motor exercises can improve executive functions and develop motor skills in children with intellectual disabilities.

Mediation of executive functions in the relationship between motor skills and psychosocial health in preschool children.

Executive function is very important in the children's overall development. The goal of this study was to assess the executive function in children with intellectual disability (ID) through the use of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) teacher version. An additional goal was to examine the differences in executive function in relation to child's sex, level and aetiology of ID. The sample consisted of 90 children with ID attending two special education schools in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. There were 42 children with mild ID and 48 children with moderate ID. Of those, 54 were boys and 36 were girls. Children were classified into three etiological categories: 30 children with Down syndrome, 30 children with other genetic cause or organic brain injury and 30 children with unknown aetiology of ID. Special education teachers, who knew the children for at least 6 months filled the BRIEF. Children with ID had a significant deficit in executive function as measured by the BRIEF. There were no statistically significant differences in executive function in relation to the child's sex. Level of ID had a significant effect on executive function. In relation to the aetiology of ID, the only significant difference was on the Shift scale of the BRIEF. Knowing what executive function is most impaired in children with ID will help professionals design better intervention strategies. More attention needs to be given to the assessment of executive function and its subsequent intervention in the school settings.

This study examined the contribution of executive function (EF) and multiple aspects of fine motor skills to achievement on 6 standardized assessments in a sample of middle-socioeconomic status kindergarteners. Three- and 4-year-olds' (n=213) fine and gross motor skills were assessed in a home visit before kindergarten, EF was measured at fall of kindergarten, and Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Academic Achievement were administered at fall and spring. Correlations indicated that EF and fine motor skills appeared distinct. Further, controlling for background variables, higher levels of both EF and fine motor skills, specifically design copy, predicted higher achievement on multiple subtests at kindergarten entry, as well as improvement from fall to spring. Implications for research on school readiness are discussed.