Developmental challenges, maritime security, and geopolitics: issues for small island developing states in the Indian Ocean

Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are among the world’s nations that are most vulnerable to climate change. SIDS have neither the resources nor the expertise to effectively evaluate the risks associated with climate change, nor the ability to adapt to potential changes. Compared to islands in the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, SIDS in the Indian Ocean and eastern Atlantic Ocean off of the west coast of Africa are among the poorest and least studied of the SIDS. In this United Nations supported study, five Indian Ocean SIDS (Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles, and Maldives) and two Atlantic Ocean SIDS (Cape Verde, and the Republic of Sao Tome & Principe) are evaluated for their vulnerability to climate change, with an emphasis on impacts on water resources and coastal zone resources. Due to significant differences between the SIDS studied in terms of size, topography, geology, precipitation, population density, storm patterns and intensities, relative sea level rise, indicators of wealth (such as GDP/capita), and other island characteristics, each SIDS faces its own unique challenges. This paper describes the major findings of the study. One important finding is that relative sea level rise at present appears most significant on one of the SIDS (Maldives), and a number of other SIDS appear to be emerging slightly at a rate high enough to presently offset the effects of global sea level rise. However, analysis shows that at sometime during the 21 st century, should sea level rise accelerate as climate models now suggest, that all the SIDS will become vulnerable to sea level change. Further, an existing stress on most of the SIDS is the human population density and tourism that have increased dramatically at most SIDS over the past several decades. Tourism provides both economic benefits to the islands, while at the same time tourists consume resources at rates typically far in excess of the native population. Therefore, stresses on water resources and the coastal zone due to human population are factored into the climate change stresses that are projected to increase over this century. Finally the paper describes capacity building efforts and strategies for adaptation that are intended to bring attention, resources, and expertise to the aid of the SIDS. One vehicle to do this is through the development of an Internet portal, eventually to be hosted and maintained by one of the SIDS.

Food Insecurity in Small Island Developing States

The article begins the process of outlining the way in which maritime security challenges are publicly articulated by Small Island Developing States (SIDS) in order to better understand the backdrop against which security policy and practice emerge. To do this the article discusses the results of an initial, exploratory content analysis of UN SIDS conference documents framed by the central research question, ‘In the SIDS’ public conceptualisation of sustainable development, how are maritime security threats articulated?’ The article argues that for SIDS their conceptualisation of maritime security is inextricably wrapped up in concerns about sustainable development, with concern about challenges such as illegal fishing being pinpointed as threats to food security. The article calls for more research on the extent to which SIDS’ conceptualisation of maritime security differs regionally; highlights a vulnerability straitjacket SIDS may find themselves wearing; and suggests that SIDS consider the development of holistic sustainable blue growth strategies to bring multiple stakeholders together to enhance human wellbeing. To conclude, the article argues that ultimately efforts to pursue enhanced maritime security by SIDS will be determined by how they chart a path between emphasising their own vulnerability and the opportunities associated with their maritime domain.

Scattered around the tropics and sub-tropics are several dozen states and sub-national jurisdictions considered to be Small Island Developing States (SIDS). This book sets out to explore vulnerable and resilient communities in SIDS, how these are and are not impacted by climate change, and how to evaluate mitigation and adaptation activities. It also identifies factors capable of enhancing or inhibiting the long-term ability of people in SIDS to deal with climate change, and critiques discourse, vocabulary, and constructions used around SIDS and their dealing with vulnerability and resilience in the context of climate change. The book is structured to capture three distinct approaches to the topic of vulnerability and resilience in SIDS: concepts and dimensions, sectors, and places, ranging from single countries to comparative analysis among several SIDS, across Caribbean, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Climate change is adding a further layer of complexity to existing vulnerabilities and resiliences across SIDS, as shown in various chapters in this book. Many SIDS have managed to build and enhance their resilience, often by building on a set of norms and long-established practices that stem from a mix of tradition and innovation, spearheading mitigation and adaptation measures. We believe that the scholarly research included in this book is relevant both to academia and to policy, as it provides crucial evidence from the perspective of SIDS, sometimes involving communities excluded from, or at the margins of, mainstream research.

This report was commissioned by the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water management and written by analysts at the Swedish Institute for the Marine Environment (affiliated with the University of Gothenburg, Lund University, and Chalmers University of Technology). This report documents how marine plastic litter reaches even the most remote parts of the oceans with small island states, and how SIDS are especially vulnerable to its impact. The origin and composition of marine plastic litter and its impacts are described. Measures are discussed, both from state agencies and private corporations. Measures from existing RAPs on marine litter are reviewed and examples of private initiatives are mentioned. Also, the corresponding legal framework is given and side effects of marine litter measures on the Sustainable Development Goals of the UN are debated. THE VULNERABILITY OF SIDS SIDS are a set of island nations in the Caribbean Sea, the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic, Indian Ocean, and the South China Sea. SIDS are exposed to disproportionate concentrations of plastic litter due to their location near the ocean gyres where marine litter accumulates and to often sub-performing waste management systems. ORIGINS AND COMPOSITION OF MARINE PLASTIC LITTER Because plastic make up most marine debris, the focus here is on plastic litter. Marine plastic litter washed ashore on SIDS originates from both distant countries overseas and the SIDS themselves. Buoyant plastic litter is globally distributed by ocean currents and is washed ashore on beach lines around the globe where it negatively impacts ecological and human systems. Plastics end up in the marine environment through leaks from the global value chains that run from the oil industry through various other industries to local retailers and consumers. A smaller but significant stream of plastic litter follows from the difficulties of many SIDS to establish and maintain efficient waste management systems. IMPACT OF PLASTIC LITTER ON ECOLOGICAL, SOCIAL, AND ECONOMIC VALUES Marine litter impacts the environment and organisms therein in various ways, including entanglement, ingestion, transfer of chemicals, or by otherwise altering habitats. The extent of the social and economic impact that plastic on countries is not currently well known. However, the dependence of SIDS on their natural resources through tourism and fisheries, make them economically vulnerable to plastic litter. MITIGATION AND REMEDIATION STRATEGIES For plastic that reaches SIDS, both remediation and mitigation, especially through waste management and recycling, become necessary. LEGAL AND POLITICAL FRAMEWORKS The legal framework for preventing and managing marine litter is present on all levels of governance. A declaration particularly relevant to marine litter on SIDS is the SAMOA Pathway, a declaration from the 3rd International Conference on Small Island Developing States in 2014 calling for measures to manage waste, including marine plastic litter. Multilateral agreements require party states to take actions, but these requirements are often generally formulated, and their achievements depend on the choices and participation of all parties. POLICY MEASURES PROPOSED BY REGIONAL ACTION PLANS There are 18 Regional Seas programmes under the United Nations Environmental Program for the protection of the marine environment. Some Regional Seas programmes have written strategies to guide their actions, the RAPs, i.e. a political agenda for marine litter management agreed on by member governments of the region. The contents of different RAPs show strong similarities. The analyses conducted here show that most measures suggested by RAPs are aimed at downstream processes, while fewer address the problem upstream. Additional measures are needed to solve such a global problem. VOLUNTARY AND COMMERCIAL INITIATIVES Marine litter requires an array of actions from local to global level, and is thus a matter of governance. Most measures suggested in RAPs and other work against marine litter involve government managers as well as businesses, NGOs, and voluntary initiatives. RECOMMENDATION: FUTURE COOPERATION Competence and enthusiasm for the issue on SIDS and elsewhere is growing, but more is needed. Solutions require international cooperation. Four recommendations for cooperation are highlighted here: 1. Prevent litter from entering the ocean and thus reaching SIDS: Support cooperation in regional and international agreements 2. Plastic material reaching SIDS should not be released into the environment: Technical cooperation and support for local waste management 3. If waste reaches the environment, collect it where appropriate: Support beach clean-up campaigns and other remediation measures 4. When waste has been collected, ensure that is has a value: Develop recycling markets and opportunities

Background: Cervical cancer is the leading cause of death in young women in developing countries which includes those in Small Island Developing States (SIDS). Some of the highest rates of cervical cancer deaths in the world occur in the Atlantic, Indian Ocean, Mediterranean, South China Seas(AIMS) and Pacific SIDS. The objective of this systematic review is to determine the range of cervical cancer treatments available in 36 of 38 SIDS who are members of the United Nations. Methods: Databases searched independently by two authors were: MEDLINE, CINAHL and Scopus. Manuscripts published between 2000-2017 were identified using a search strategy that included cervical cancer, all forms of treatment and the name of each of the selected 36 SIDS in the Caribbean, Pacific and AIMS countries. Only articles in the English language were included. Duplicates, non-relevant and those not meeting the inclusion criteria were excluded. Two authors selected and read the included articles independently and rated the methodological quality of each article. Results: From a total of 175 abstracts, 158 were excluded as duplicates and not relevant. Seventeen papers were read in full, nine were excluded as not meeting the inclusion criteria and eight manuscripts were included in the review. A narrative synthesis was considered appropriate given the heterogenous nature of the manuscripts. Seven of the eight papers were from the Caribbean SIDS underpinning evidence that treatments for cervical cancer were more developed in that region compared to the Pacific and AIMS SIDS. Surgery was available in most SIDS followed by chemotherapy with only seven (19%) SIDS, all in the Caribbean, with radiation centres. Conclusion: There is a dearth of published evidence on the details of treatments available to women with cervical cancer in 36 SIDS. With cervical cancer increasing in those parts of the world due to weak cancer prevention and control strategies, a large number of women with cervical cancer are not being treated especially in the Pacific and AIMS SIDS. More needs to be done to address treatments in the Pacific and AIMS SIDS and to increase publication of those efforts.

Small island developing states (SIDS) are among the countries in the world that are most vulnerable to climate change and required to adapt to its impacts. Yet, there is little information in the academic literature about how SIDS are adapting to climate change, across multiple countries and geographic regions. This paper helps to fill this gap. Using a sample of 16 countries across the Atlantic, Indian Ocean and South China Sea, Caribbean and Pacific regions, this study has two main aims, to identify (1) national-level adaptation trends across climate, climate-induced and non-climate-induced vulnerabilities, sectors and actors, as reported in National Communications (NCs) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and (2) typologies of national-level adaptation actions in SIDS. It identifies, codes and assesses 977 adaptation actions. These actions were reported as addressing 47 climate and climate-induced vulnerabilities and 50 non-climate-induced vulnerabilities and were undertaken in 37 sectors by 34 actors. The paper proposes five typologies of adaptation actions for SIDS, based on actions reported by SIDS. It specifically explores the implications of its findings for global adaptation strategies. As this work establishes a baseline of adaptation action in SIDS, it can assist national governments to gauge their adaptation progress, identify gaps in their adaptation effort and, thereafter, develop appropriate strategies for filling the gaps. It can also assist donors, whether bilateral or multilateral, to make more ‘climate-smart’ investment decisions by being able to identify the adaptation needs that are not being met in SIDS.

Storms, hurricanes, and cyclones have been a feature of life on Small Island Developing States (SIDS) for centuries. But climate change is now increasing the intensity of these disasters, as well as creating new developmental challenges - like rising sea levels and increasing ocean acidity - which not only challenge the development models of these countries. They challenge and threaten their own existence. This report examines the nature, scope and volume of concessional finance directed to SIDS to build resilience to climate change and natural disasters. It identifies challenges in the provision and use of financing for resilience. Yet, it is not just about challenges. It also illustrates the positive steps that SIDS are taking – and in many cases leading – to ensure that climate and disaster resilience is addressed as an integral part of their development. The report offers targeted recommendations to enhance the scope and quality of resilience financing, calling for the international community to consider financing for climate and disaster resilience that is appropriate for the challenges that SIDS face. The report is a jointly funded initiative of the OECD and the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) at the World Bank.

This paper presents a technological review of permeable pavement systems (PPS) for applications in urban areas of small island developing states (SIDS). This review includes a literature survey of PPS, challenges and opportunities of climate change and urban development in SIDS, and key aspects worth considering for widespread acceptance and use of PPS in SIDS. SIDS is comprised of several nations located across the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, as well as the Caribbean, Mediterranean, and South China seas. They are particularly susceptible to the effects of climate change and increasing urbanization. Urban stormwater management and flooding are often serious challenges faced by authorities in most SIDS. PPS are resilient infrastructure which can assist in mitigating flooding by reducing runoff and peak flows and improving the landscape perviousness. PPS can further improve stormwater runoff quality to receiving natural waters by reducing pollutant loadings of suspended solids, heavy metals, and hydrocarbons. Unlike most territorial states, the geographical and geologically confined nature of most SIDS present unique parameters for consideration when designing permeable pavements for SIDS. This literature survey found that some of the most important parameters include traffic loads, cost, construction aggregate choice, and availability, permeability of existing soil at the intended location, depth of water table, potential for groundwater contamination, slope of the pavement, stormwater reuse option, clogging, maintenance, and support from policy makers. Continued practical research into the use of permeable pavements for urban runoff management in SIDS is on‐going with the expectation of PPS being utilized in many SIDS.

Small island developing states (SIDS) are typically characterized by being environmentally and socio-economically vulnerable to disasters and climate change. Additionally, they often have limited resources for freshwater provisioning services. This article presents an assessment of disaster risk and water security-related challenges in SIDS focusing on three major dimensions: (a) how disaster risks are perceived and addressed in the SIDS context using a case study method, (b) analyzing the current status of water security in these regions using an indicator-based approach and (c) assessing gaps and needs in institutions and policies that can facilitate sustainable development goals (SDGs) and targets, adaptation and resilience building in SIDS. In this regard, information on all SIDS is collected to be able to distinguish trends in and between SIDS based on amongst others geographical location and characteristics. This synthesis noted two key observations: first, that in SIDS, the number of disasters is increasing at a higher rate than the global average, and that the frequency and intensity of the disasters will likely increase because of climate change. These combined factors will impact SIDS on the societal level and on environmental levels, reducing their adaptive capacity, resources, and resilience. Second, most SIDS are already water-scarce with low groundwater volumes. Because of increasing demand (e.g., population growth and tourism) and decreasing supply (e.g., pollution and changes in precipitation patterns) freshwater resources are becoming increasingly limited, often suffering from the spillover effects of competing and conflicting uses. Threatened ecosystems and limited economic resources further influence the adaptive capacities of communities in SIDS. In this light, key solutions to address disaster-risk and water security-related challenges can be found by sharing best practices and lessons learned—from examples of good governance, integrated policies, improved community-resilience, and capacity-building. Added to their fragile situation, SIDS struggle to find enough funding to put their development plans, programs, and policies into action.

Climate change issue in SIDS is real and alarming. While shifting to more sustainable energy resources is a feasible option to curb down climate change impacts, there are still some barriers to overcome to do so. Energy efficiency is another option to mitigate climate change impacts. Past studies showed that energy efficiency is more effective through education and awareness. In the context of SIDS, their energy sector is characterised by poor electrification rates, high dependence on oil and less ability to cope with volatile oil prices and ironically, past studies showed that energy practitioners in SIDS, some if not most, have a lack of knowledge on energy issues in small island communities. Therefore, there is a need to train energy practitioners in SIDS who can hopefully contribute to transform SIDS energy sector into a sustainable and dynamic one. The aim of this study is to highlight the importance and barriers of educating energy practitioners on energy efficiency. In this study, in the foremost energy issues in SIDS are highlighted. The study is focussed on the need to achieve an energy efficient culture in a workplace and how it can be achieved through education. A proposed content on an energy efficiency programme is outlined. Issues and challenges for energy efficiency education is included and an opportunity to address these issues through global corporation is included. This study can help to refocus attention on energy efficiency in SIDS, and motivate energy practitioners to come up with energy efficiency practices at their workplaces.

A richness index for baselining climate change adaptations in small island developing states

Climate effects on health in Small Islands Developing States

Small island developing states (SIDS) are true ocean states, many even being large ocean states. They now exercise sovereignty rights and national jurisdiction over vast maritime domains that are significantly larger than their land territories (in many cases thousand times larger), but they usually have limited capacity to monitor, control and defend this maritime space. This chapter addresses maritime security issues and challenges in SIDS in a general manner. It considers threats and risks associated with traditional national security, marine environment, economic development and human security, as well as the SIDS capacities and strategies to cope with their maritime security needs. Maritime security is thereby discussed in relation to blue economy, sustainable development, capacity-building and cooperation. The chapter concludes that maritime security has recently emerged as a pressing national security matter for SIDS and that it will certainly continue to be so in the foreseeable future.

Small Island Developing States (SIDS) comprise a group of 58 nations identified by the United Nations as facing unique sustainability challenges. These challenges include high exposure to climate change and a lack of data and limited resources. The effects of climate change are already observed in SIDS, notably an increase in the magnitude and frequency of natural disasters, biodiversity loss, ocean acidification, coral bleaching, sea-level rise, and coastal erosion. The coastal zone is considered to be the main economic, environmental, and cultural resource of SIDS, making them particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. This project focuses on quantifying and disentangling coastal changes, including erosion, accretion and coastline stability. Existing literature lacks a comprehensive understanding of the patterns of coastal changes, as well as the main anthropogenic and environmental drivers involved. We address this research gap by quantifying the challenges that SIDS encounter, with a particular emphasis on coastal changes.The approach is data-driven, relying on observational time series extracted from remote sensing (e.g., Sentinel-2, Planet Scope, Landsat missions), in situ measurements (e.g., tide gauge data), and open-access databases. We have developed a robust method based on image segmentation to extract the island's shape over time, enabling us to illustrate the island's dynamics and obtain reliable time series of the coastline position. The main drivers of coastal changes are then identified and quantified using time series analysis methods, including causal inference and discovery methods, for SIDS worldwide. We place a specific focus on the Maldives (Indian Ocean) due to its low elevation and high human activity. Additionally, the methodology expands to investigate a spectrum of issues, including the impacts of human activities (e.g., land reclamation, sand mining, shoreline armouring) on the natural responses of coastlines, as well as the effects of confounding factors or common drivers (e.g., Indian monsoon, tropical cyclones, and El Niño/Southern Oscillation). The ultimate goal is to develop a spatiotemporal variable coastline vulnerability index by integrating socioeconomic and environmental time series data, facilitating the assessment of environmental policies in SIDS.