Abstract
Bisphenol A (BPA), used in polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins, has a widespread exposure to humans. BPA is of concern for developmental exposure resulting in immunomodulation and disease development due to its ability to cross the placental barrier and presence in breast milk. BPA can use various mechanisms to modulate the immune system and affect diseases, including agonistic and antagonistic effects on many receptors (e.g., estrogen receptors), epigenetic modifications, acting on cell signaling pathways and, likely, the gut microbiome. Immune cell populations and function from the innate and adaptive immune system are altered by developmental BPA exposure, including decreased T regulatory (Treg) cells and upregulated pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Developmental BPA exposure can also contribute to the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus, allergy, asthma and mammary cancer disease by altering immune function. Multiple sclerosis and type 1 diabetes mellitus may also be exacerbated by BPA, although more research is needed. Additionally, BPA analogs, such as bisphenol S (BPS), have been increasing in use, and currently, little is known about their immune effects. Therefore, more studies should be conducted to determine if developmental exposure BPA and its analogs modulate immune responses and lead to immune-related diseases.
Highlights
Bisphenol A (BPA) is used in polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins, such as food containers and can linings, with human exposure levels measurable in more than 90% of human urine samples in a 2003–2004 national survey and in a more recent 2007–2009 Canadian survey [1,2]
Some of the main receptors bound by BPA are estrogen receptors (ERs), estrogen-related receptors (ERRs), aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) and toll-like receptors (TLRs) [10,11]
ERs, ERRs and TLRs are expressed in the majority of immune cells; dendritic cells (DCs), macrophages, B cells and the T cell subsets Th17 and T regulatory (Treg) express AhR; and PPARs are expressed in macrophages, DCs, T cells and B cells [10,12,13]
Summary
Bisphenol A (BPA) is used in polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins, such as food containers and can linings, with human exposure levels measurable in more than 90% of human urine samples in a 2003–2004 national survey and in a more recent 2007–2009 Canadian survey [1,2]. With such a high frequency of exposure in humans, there has been an increasing amount of research published on BPA exposure in utero and through lactation for many possible developmental and reproductive effects, which can lead to an altered immune system and disease development.
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