Development of offshore wind farms from an environmental perspective

Making knowledge matter: Understanding and improving knowledge-integration in Dutch marine spatial planning policy

Environmental impact assessment framework for offshore wind energy developments based on the marine Good Environmental Status

In the present study, characteristics of wind velocity / speed at the two coastal regions ie. Zone-A and Zone-B of south India, were analyzed for developing a large offshore wind farm. The average data of wind velocity collected over a period of five years (2014-2018) was considered for the study. The weibull shape and scale parameters were evaluated using WAsP, openwind, maximum likelihood (MLH) and least square regression (LSR) algorithms. The wind velocity contributing maximum energy and the most frequent wind velocity were also determined using the four algorithmic methods. The study also analyzed the efficiency of these methods using correlation coefficient (R2) and root mean square error (RMSE). Of all the methods used, the LSR was found to be slightly better than the MLH, followed by openwind and WAsP methods. The suitable wind turbines were selected for the two sites from the commercially available wind turbines. The results show that Zone-B is more suitable for the development of an offshore wind farm than Zone-A coastal region of south India.

Offshore wind farm has been one of the most effective ways to wind energy exploitation, and many new technical and economic problems are brought with development of large offshore wind farms. Electric distribution system plays an important role in reliable operation of large offshore wind farm and holds considerable proportion in total investment, so that optimization of the system is one of the key problems in development of offshore wind farms. Based on analysis of main issues of the problem, optimization model is proposed and explained in this paper. An optimization approach based on improved genetic algorithm is presented to search the optimal solution. The model and its solution method are then checked on a planning offshore wind farm in China. The results show that the optimization approach is suitable and valid.

The future development of energy islands in North Sea is going to assist the further growth of offshore wind farms in a territory characterized by rich wind energy resources. The development of offshore wind farms in Aegean Sea, which is characterized by high mean annual wind velocities, is in the initial phase while it is foreseen that by 2050 the electricity generated by offshore wind farms will have a high share in the energy mix in Greece. The future interconnection of the electric grids of the small islands in Aegean Sea with the grid of continental Greece is going to trigger the development of new renewable energy installations in these islands reducing the current use of oil-based fuels in them. The development of offshore wind farms in Aegean Sea could be combined with green hydrogen production, when it is profitable, while it could be also used in the future for electricity generation from sea waves. The future development of physical energy islands in the Archipelago combined with the development of offshore wind farms and the interconnection of the small islands' grids could promote the further development of the rich solar and wind energy resources in Aegean Sea assisting the de-carbonization of the Greek power system. The current work could be useful to policy makers, to local and regional authorities as well as to energy companies which are willing to invest in renewable energy systems in Aegean Sea.

An ecological risk assessment, based on life‐history and behavioural attributes of 273 bird taxa, was used to identify which of those taxa are at high risk from negative interactions with offshore wind farms in Australia. The marine area of Australia was divided by state/territory boundaries perpendicular to the coast into eight regions, with Western Australia further divided into north and south, and a Bass Strait region bounded by the Victoria coast and the north coast of Tasmania. These regions were subdivided into coastal, inshore and offshore sub‐regions and a risk summary for all bird taxa occurring in each of these sub‐regions produced. In coastal and inshore sub‐regions of Bass Strait, South Australia and Tasmania, the species with the highest risk scores were Orange‐bellied Parrot Neophema chrysogaster, Furneaux White‐fronted Tern Sterna striata incerta, Swift Parrot Lathamus discolor, Shy Albatross Thalassarche cauta, Far Eastern Curlew Numenius madagascariensis and Anadyr Bar‐tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica anadyrensis. In offshore sub‐regions in southern Australia, the highest risk species were all albatrosses, comprising Northern Royal Diomedea sanfordi, Eastern Antipodean D. antipodensis antipodensis, Gibson's D. antipodensis gibsoni, Wandering D. exulans, Amsterdam D. amsterdamensis and Grey‐headed Albatross T. chrysostoma. Compared to onshore installations, there are logistical challenges to quantifying the potential and realized impacts of offshore wind farms that require different approaches to data collection and analyses. The extensive development of offshore wind farms in the Northern Hemisphere provides examples of best and emerging approaches to quantify and mitigate negative impacts of offshore wind farms that can be applied in an Australian context. Despite differences in the species involved, the same approaches to identifying high‐risk species and to the monitoring and mitigation of negative impacts should be applied in a coordinated, regional‐scale approach to the development of offshore wind farms in Australia.

The key technologies and development of offshore wind farm in China

The observed development of offshore wind farms has resulted in an increasing presence of long extra-high voltage cables, with lengths ranging from 10 to 200 km. These cable lines are compensated for by a shunt reactor(s). The transient states that accompany switching operations, in this type of line, cause a number of challenges. There are slightly different and more dangerous phenomena than in classic uncompensated lines. One such phenomenon is the zero-missing phenomenon. The most effective methods for mitigating these phenomena are still under investigation and comparison to identify the optimal countermeasures. Applying a single minimization countermeasure often leads to avoiding one phenomenon (e.g., zero-missing phenomenon) while enhancing another (e.g., switching overvoltages). This can challenge designers, as they must consider the trade-offs between these competing objectives. The added value of this article is an analysis of the impact of the compensation level and its distribution (shunt reactor(s) location) in the offshore wind farm power export systems on zero-missing phenomenon and switching overvoltages. These analyses are supported by simulation cases mapping the case of the Polish power system. The results of the presented analysis are very important in light of a dynamic development of offshore wind farms and may be utilized by designers of power export systems, and can mitigate the significant risks occurring in such systems during energization cable lines.

The development of offshore wind farms is an important step toward increasing the share of green energy in Poland’s energy mix, offering promising prospects for the energy industry. However, in addition to numerous benefits, such investments also carry potential risks for the marine environment, including the risk of spills of hazardous substances such as gear oils, hydraulic oils, and lubricants. This paper analyses the potential impact of oil spills from offshore wind farms on the marine ecosystems of the Baltic Sea, taking into account hydrometeorological factors, particularly protected areas (such as Natura 2000 sites) and the intensity of ship traffic in the area of the planned farms. Simulations of spill scenarios are also presented to assess the potential extent of pollution and its impact on the environment. This paper emphasises the importance of advanced monitoring and safety systems in minimising the risk of accidents and responding quickly to possible incidents. The development of offshore wind farms in Poland presents itself as a key element in a sustainable energy development strategy, combining advanced technology with environmental concerns.

Taiwan is making efforts to transform its energy system in response to the global trend of climate change, vigorously developing renewable energy to achieve the goal of “Net Zero” emissions by 2050. However, the development of offshore wind farms may have an impact on the ecological environment of the vast western waters. The coastal waters are heavily used for human activities, and the adjacent protected reefs and estuary areas have abundant biodiversity, which may be greatly affected and require priority investigation. In recent years, passive underwater acoustic monitoring has been widely used. In addition to sound levels, it is also used for biodiversity surveys and ocean environmental impact assessments. This paper provides a review of passive acoustic monitoring studies conducted along the western coast of Taiwan in the past decade. The study period encompasses the pre-construction, construction, and operational phases of the first offshore wind turbine demonstration project, as well as the current underwater noise characteristics during the construction phase of offshore wind farms. During the large-scale development of offshore wind farms, passive acoustic monitoring is a great way to maintain a good and sustainable marine environment.

Offshore wind farm in marine spatial planning and the stakeholders engagement: Opportunities and challenges for Taiwan

The recently adopted maritime spatial plan for Polish sea waters promotes offshore wind farm (OWF) development. The study’s identification of the local municipalities affected by offshore development was based on the plan’s provisions. Through the analysis of the plan and literature findings, both positive and negative impacts of future OWF development were identified and examined. Such an analysis seems to be a precondition for the more active engagement of local stakeholders in the debate on the ways in which to best utilize the new opportunities created by the plan and cope with the threats resulting from maritime spatial planning (MSP). The key impacts recognized by the local business stakeholders have been related to landscape pollution and fishing limitations. Stakeholders less frequently have noticed positive impacts of MSP such as development of a new form of tourism. Up to this point, small municipalities have not undertaken sufficient action, and there is a lack of communication between developers, marine planners and coastal communities. Planners have not assessed the impact of their plan on local economic development. The proposed remedies cover standard actions related to communication, education and dialogue, but in addition to that, a consolidated action of local municipalities on how to capitalize on OWF development has been proposed. The first step proposed is preparation of a joint strategy by coastal municipalities addressing this issue.

As Japan accelerates offshore wind farm (OWF) development to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050, it is crucial to understand the impacts of OWFs on local fisheries. To provide baseline data for the assessing these impacts on fisheries, we tracked the movements of Japanese spiny lobsters ( Panulirus japonicus ), a commercially important species, using acoustic telemetry in an area that was designated by the government as a promotion zone for OWF development. Acoustic tags were attached to 23 adult lobsters (CL = 97.9 ± 17.7 mm), which were then released in an isolated rocky reef frequently used by local fishermen as a lobster fishing ground. The tagged lobsters were detected within the reef for 7–97 (mean ± SD = 52 ± 29) days, with five individuals remaining within the reef > 90 days. The duration of home-area occupancy during which lobsters likely occupied the same or adjacent shelters within the reef ranged 2–42 (mean ± SD = 5.7 ± 5.8) days. Movement network analyses revealed that lobsters often relocated shelters both within and between habitat patches, with some traveling over 1-km per night to reach another patch. These findings suggest that if OWF structures function as new habitats for this species, the structures' introduction could alter the lobsters' spatial distribution and movement network. We believe that a comparative approach examining the space use of commercial species before and after OWF development is essential for determining the precise impacts of OWF introduction on local fisheries.

Development of a computable general equilibrium model based on integrated macroeconomic framework for ocean multi-use between offshore wind farms and fishing activities in Scotland

The present paper focuses on the efficient development of offshore wind farms in shallow waters in Greece. An integrated spatial energy planning approach is introduced. The proposed methodology is implemented using geographic information system and Statistical Design Institute software and applied at the national spatial planning scale. It consists of four distinct stages: (1) identifying appropriate areas to site offshore wind farms (the macro-siting configuration), (2) determining the principal technical specifications of the offshore wind turbines as well as the micro-siting configurations of offshore wind projects, (3) estimating the total investment cost of each potential offshore wind project, and (4) prioritizing the most suitable potential sites for offshore wind farms based on specific assessment criteria. The final outcomes of the proposed methodology are the development of a marine site suitability index and an assessment of the effects of different policy orientations for offshore wind farm siting on that index. Four ‘what-if’ critical scenarios are applied to test the robustness of the overall suitability index to the subjectivity of expert judgments of potential sites and thus assess the reliability of the proposed methodology. The implementation of the proposed methodology could facilitate the fulfillment of national targets for the energy sector and encourage energy interdependence among many geographic areas in Greece, since the total estimated production capacity of all the proposed offshore wind projects is expected to reach 1,185 MW.