Development of an LC-MS/MS Method for Quantitation of Western Honeybee (Apis mellifera) α-Glucosidase III as a Potential Honey Authenticity Marker

Worker honeybees ( Apis mellifera ) usually only lay eggs when their colony is queenless. However, an extremely rare ‘anarchistic’ phenotype occurs, in which workers develop functional ovaries and lay large numbers of haploid eggs which develop into adult drones despite the presence of the queen. Studies of such colonies can give important insights into the mechanisms by which worker sterility is maintained in normal colonies. Here we report on the results of a breeding programme which enhanced the frequency of the anarchistic phenotype. Colonies derived from queens inseminated only by worker–laid males showed up to 9% of workers with highly developed ovaries. In these colonies a large proportion of males arose from worker–laid eggs. Colonies headed by queens inseminated with 50% worker–laid drones and 50% queen–laid drones showed variable phenotypes. In most such colonies there was no worker reproduction. In some, many workers had highly developed ovaries, but no worker–laid eggs were reared. In one colony, many worker–laid eggs were reared to maturity. The results suggest that the anarchy phenotype results from a complex interaction of queen genotype, the worker genotype of subfamilies that successfully reproduce and of those that do not, and the external environment.

Determination of neonicotinoid insecticides and their metabolites in honey bee and honey by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry.

We investigated whether field assessments of honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) colony health explain subsequent colony size, honey production, and survival. Field detections of visible diseases, Varroa destructor (Anderson and Trueman) and queen replacement events were recorded during a multisite cohort study, which also incorporated fumagillin and protein supplementation as colony-level treatments. Together, treatment groups and field observations explained between 5% of the variability in adult bee counts and 28% of the variability in honey production among colonies, after accounting for the effects of region and date. In particular, detections of minor disease symptoms, mainly chalkbrood, were associated with large reductions in honey production and approximately doubled the short-term probability of colony death. Although the effects of treatments and field-observed events were significant, unexplained variability among similarly managed colonies was much greater. Consequently, beekeepers may be unable to detect the effects of these field-observable factors, or distinguish effective treatments from ineffective ones. Despite this, interventions to reduce the prevalence of varroa and visible diseases, and to prevent queen loss, are likely to improve honey bee health and productivity.

Honey bees are important pollinators that support food security and nature’s biodiversity. They are also a source of various honey bee-derived products (api-products) used in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. However, various biological, chemical and physical factors threaten the population and biodiversity of feral and managed honey bees. These challenges have not been elaborated upon in the Pakistani context; therefore, this review aims to identify and describe the menaces to feral and domesticated populations of honey bees in Pakistan. Four honey bee species are reported in the country, with the Western honey bee (Apis mellifera) currently being the main domesticated species. Climate change and urbanization are altering the habitats of honey bees. Additionally, agrochemicals are extensively used to manage emerging pests, exacerbating environmental pollution. The air quality in the majority of urban areas is toxic for honey bees. Although remote forest areas can provide habitat and food for these insects, low forest cover and non-sustainable silviculture are still significant hurdles. Microplastics and antimicrobials are impacting the fitness of honey bees and also appear in their products, making it a One-Health issue. Electromagnetic signals also influence honey bee health and behavior. Overall, all these factors influence honey bee health and colony fitness, ultimately causing population declines in both managed and wild honey bees. The purpose of this information is to assist decision-makers, researchers, beekeepers and educators in comprehending the obstacles faced by the honey bee population within the context of Pakistan.

Simple SummaryGenetic selection is still little applied to honey bees (Apis mellifera), whose complex genetic and reproductive characteristics are a challenge to model statistically. The aim of this project was to determine the genetic parameters of several traits important for Canadian beekeepers with a view to establishing a breeding program in a northern context. Our results show that the five traits studied (i.e., honey production, spring development, winter consumption, hygienic behavior and Varroa destructor infestation) are all heritable. Furthermore, the genetic correlations between these traits are all positive or null, which means that these traits can be selected simultaneously in a honey bees genetic selection program. Our results are instrumental to the development of a selection index that can be used to improve the capacity of honey bees to thrive in northern conditions.Genetic selection has led to spectacular advances in animal production in many domestic species. However, it is still little applied to honey bees (Apis mellifera), whose complex genetic and reproductive characteristics are a challenge to model statistically. Advances in informatics now enable creation of a statistical model consistent with honey bee genetics, and, consequently, genetic selection for this species. The aim of this project was to determine the genetic parameters of several traits important for Canadian beekeepers with a view to establishing a breeding program in a northern context. Our results show that the five traits measured (Varroa destructor infestation, spring development, honey production, winter consumption, and hygienic behavior) are heritable. Thus, the rate of V. destructor infestation has a high heritability (h2 = 0.44 ± 0.56), spring development and honey production have a medium heritability (respectively, h2 = 0.30 ± 0.14 and h2 = 0.20 ± 0.13), and winter consumption and hygienic behavior have a low heritability (respectively, h2 = 0.11 ± 0.09 and h2 = 0.18 ± 0.13). Furthermore, the genetic correlations between these traits are all positive or null, except between hygienic behavior and V. destructor infestation level. These genetic parameters will be instrumental to the development of a selection index that will be used to improve the capacity of honey bees to thrive in northern conditions.

Beekeeping is a cornerstone activity that has led to the human-mediated, global spread of western honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) outside their native range of Europe, western Asia, and Africa. The exportation/importation of honey bees (i.e., transfer of honey bees or germplasm between countries) is regulated at the national level in many countries. Honey bees were first imported into the United States in the early 1600’s. Today, honey bee movement (i.e., transport of honey bees among states and territories) is regulated within the United States at the state, territory, and federal levels. At the federal level, honey bees present in the country (in any state or territory) can be moved among states and territories without federal restriction, with the exception of movement to Hawaii. In contrast, regulations at the state and territory levels vary substantially, ranging from no additional regulations beyond those stipulated at the federal level, to strict regulations for the introduction of live colonies, packaged bees, or queens. This variability can lead to inconsistencies in the application of regulations regarding the movement of honey bees among states and territories. In November 2020, we convened a technical working group (TWG), composed of academic and USDA personnel, to review and summarize the (1) history of honey bee importation into/movement within the United States, (2) current regulations regarding honey bee movement and case studies on the application of those regulations, (3) benefits associated with moving honey bees within the United States, (4) risks associated with moving honey bees within the United States, and (5) risk mitigation strategies. This review will be helpful for developing standardized best practices for the safe movement of honey bees between the 48 contiguous states and other states/territories within the United States.

The Internal Standard Stable Carbon Isotope Ratio Analysis (ISCIRA) or AOAC 998.12 is a method for detecting honey adulteration using C4 sugars, such as cane and corn syrup. This method was developed and used mainly on European honeybees (Apis mellifera) and may not necessarily be applicable to honey produced by other bee species. In this study, the applicability of the ISCIRA method was validated for honeys produced by bees common to the Philippines, namely the native giant honeybees Apis breviligula, the stingless bee Tetragonula biroi, as well as Apis mellifera. Results show that authentic honeys from all three bee species collected across the Philippines (n = 14 for A. breviligula, 13 for T. biroi, and 11 for A. mellifera) displayed ISCIRA indices greater than − 1.0, validating the applicability of the ISCIRA method. Furthermore, removing suspended insoluble pollen from honey via centrifugation and filtration is not recommended as this additional step tends to shift the honey protein δ13C to a more positive value, potentially adding more leeway for C4 sugar adulteration. When the ISCIRA method was used for assessing adulteration in honey products available in the Philippine market, it was found that 12 of 16 (75%) local store-bought, 0 of 41 (0%) imported store-bought, and 64 of 74 (86.5%) local online-bought honey brands were adulterated with C4 sugars. Among the 76 adulterated honeys, 71 (93.4%) contain more than 78% apparent C4 sugar. These results demonstrate the need for stricter honey quality regulations and policies to protect the Philippines’ bee industry and its consumers.

Traditional honey bee hunting and beekeeping are crucial to the economic and spiritual lives of Thais. Bee products such as honey, brood, and royal jelly are regarded as healthy foods and frequently used as traditional medicine. In this chapter, honey bee diversity in Thailand, traditional hunting, and beekeeping are described. The giant and dwarf honey bees are harvested by hunting, only the Asian cavity nesting honey bee (Apis cerana) is domesticated and maintained in the traditional hives for harvesting honey and other bee products. The introduced species, the European honey bee (Apis mellifera) are kept in the modern box hives. By sharing food sources and habitat, the honey bees have also shared parasites and diseases. The ectoparasitic mites (both Varroa destructor and Tropilaelaps mercedesae) were jumped from A. cerana and A. dorsata respectively to the A. mellifera. The parasitic mites have become widespread and serious cause of colony loss in Thailand. In addition, microbial diseases (e.g., bee viruses, and N. ceranae) also can be detected in both native and introduced honey bee species. Other factors contributing to honey bee declines are also described.

BackgroundHemolymph plays key roles in honey bee molecule transport, immune defense, and in monitoring the physiological condition. There is a lack of knowledge regarding how the proteome achieves these biological missions for both the western and eastern honey bees (Apis mellifera and Apis cerana). A time-resolved proteome was compared using two-dimensional electrophoresis-based proteomics to reveal the mechanistic differences by analysis of hemolymph proteome changes between the worker bees of two bee species during the larval to pupal stages.ResultsThe brood body weight of Apis mellifera was significantly heavier than that of Apis cerana at each developmental stage. Significantly, different protein expression patterns and metabolic pathways were observed in 74 proteins (166 spots) that were differentially abundant between the two bee species. The function of hemolymph in energy storage, odor communication, and antioxidation is of equal importance for the western and eastern bees, indicated by the enhanced expression of different protein species. However, stronger expression of protein folding, cytoskeletal and developmental proteins, and more highly activated energy producing pathways in western bees suggests that the different bee species have developed unique strategies to match their specific physiology using hemolymph to deliver nutrients and in immune defense.ConclusionsOur disparate findings constitute a proof-of-concept of molecular details that the ecologically shaped different physiological conditions of different bee species match with the hemolymph proteome during the brood stage. This also provides a starting point for future research on the specific hemolymph proteins or pathways related to the differential phenotypes or physiology.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2164-15-563) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The study evaluates the winter hardiness, spring development, and honey production of Central Russian honey bees (Apis mellifera mellifera) and Carpathian honey bees (Apis mellifera carpatica) in the Chelyabinsk region. The research analyzes key parameters of wintering bee colonies, including colony strength in autumn, food consumption, level of chalkbrood disease, and varroa mite resistance. Results indicate that Central Russian honeybees exhibit high winter hardiness and disease resistance, contributing to their resilience during cold winter periods. Despite originating from warmer climates, Carpathian honey bees also demonstrated good winter hardiness, albeit with some susceptibility to chalkbrood disease. Both bee breeds showed comparable spring development, directly influencing overall honey production. Comparing honey productivity data revealed that Central Russian honey bees significantly outperformed Carpathian bees in terms of honey yield per harvesting period. Thus, the study underscores the importance of selecting appropriate bee breeds to ensure successful wintering and high honey productivity in harsh climates, crucial for effective beekeeping in the Chelyabinsk region and similar environments.

Ever since the seminal papers of Hamilton (1964), a common focus of sociobiology has been the genetic relationships among individuals of insect societies. At issue are agents that reduce the average relatedness among colony members since they are difficult to interpret in light of the evolution of sociality by kin selection. One such factor is polyandry or female multiple mating. Low levels of polyandry are common among the social Hymenoptera, occurring across a broad range of taxa and social systems (Page and Metcalf 1982; Page 1986; Crozier and Pamilo 1996). In spite of that, high mating frequencies (‚2 mates/ female) are relatively rare among the highly eusocial Hymenoptera, limited to only one or a few genera in each of the ants, bees, and wasps (Boomsma and Ratnieks 1996). These extraordinary levels of polyandry have been of particular interest among students of social insect research since their adaptive significance is still in question and highly debated (Kraus and Page 1998; Sherman et al. 1998). The genus Apis has been studied in depth for both queen reproductive behavior and mating frequency, facts that allow insight into the evolution of extreme polyandry in these species. The reproductive behavior of honey bee queens (Apis mellifera) occurs early in their lifetimes. Virgin queens initiate mating behavior when they are about 1 wk old by briefly exiting the colony and orienting to local landmarks (Ruttner 1956). After such orientation * To whom correspondence should be addressed; e-mail: drtarpy@

Honey is one of the historical natural products produced by honey bees. Humans used it as medicine and protection against some infectious diseases, a honey quale is dependent in its classification of the honey bee. The most famous accomplished honey bees in the world are Africanized honey bee (Apis mellıfera .l), Western honey bee or European honey bee (Apis mellifera), Eastern honey bee (Apis cerana), Philippine honey bee (Apis nigrocincta), Koschevnikovs honey bee (A. koschevnikovi), Giant Honeybees (Apis dorsata), Dwarf Honeybees (Apis andreniformis). This study collected the health effect, quality and usage of honey in several industries; also argue about the nutritious value of honey that the most important parts are protein, carbohydrates, vitamin, and minerals.
 Honey is not only a nutrient it also plays a major role in many other products, uses of honey in cosmetics as a protective and softener of skin, it is used up to 22% in paste masks and mud packs (which are considered rinse-off formulations). Uses of honey in Ayurveda for prevention of irritation, cough, healthy teeth, gums, and boons. 
 Production of honey has been compared in 2013 to 2018, in 2013 the world production of honey was 1,664 thousand tones with an increase of 1/3 in just two decades. China, where manufacturing amounted to 466.3 thousand tons, i.e. approximately 29% of the global volume of output, these are showing that China was the biggest producer of honey in the world but it gets a decrease in 2018 as well as Brazil, America, Russia, Ethiopia, and Iran. And it increases in Turkey, Argentine, India, Mexico, and Poland.

Land use and cover change have a high influence on bee species, where honey bees (Apis mellifera) could be affected in terms of resources, dispersal, and habitat. However, the influence of landscape context on honey productivity has been scarcely explored in comparison with population parameters, which is an essential topic for the economic development of rural communities based on apiculture. Here, we tested the hypothesis if honey production decreases with the increase of exotic forest plantations in the landscape as the cover of native forest decreases, vegetation and soils become increasingly degraded. We compiled data on honey productivity for two years (2018 and 2019) of small-scale honey production in 17 landscapes of 1 km radii (Curanilahue state in south-central Chile). Then, the landscapes were characterized by using remote sensing techniques, including biophysical and compositional landscape variables. Finally, Generalized Linear Mixed Models were implemented to explore the relationship between landscape variables and honey productivity. We identified a positive relationship between honey productivity with built cover and grassland cover. On the other hand, a negative relationship was found between honey production and net primary production, exotic forest plantations, and tree senescence index. Our results provide new insights into the landscape-scale drivers of hive productivity in rural landscapes of south-central Chile.

Honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies are valued for the pollination services that they provide. However, colony mortality has increased to unsustainable levels in some countries, including the United States. Landscape conversion to monocrop agriculture likely plays a role in this increased mortality by decreasing the food sources available to honey bees. Many land owners and organizations in the Upper Midwest region of the United States would like to restore/reconstruct native prairie habitats. With increasing public awareness of high bee mortality, many landowners and beekeepers have wondered whether these restored prairies could significantly improve honey bee colony nutrition. Conveniently, honey bees have a unique communication signal called a waggle dance, which indicates the locations of the flower patches that foragers perceive as highly profitable food sources. We used these communication signals to answer two main questions: First, is there any part of the season in which the foraging force of a honey bee colony will devote a large proportion of its recruitment efforts (waggle dances) to flower patches within prairies? Second, will honey bee foragers advertise specific taxa of native prairie flowers as profitable pollen sources? We decoded 1528 waggle dances in colonies located near two large, reconstructed prairies. We also collected pollen loads from a subset of waggle-dancing bees, which we then analyzed to determine the flower taxon advertised. Most dances advertised flower patches outside of reconstructed prairies, but the proportion of dances advertising nectar sources within prairies increased significantly in the late summer/fall at one site. Honey bees advertised seven native prairie taxa as profitable pollen sources, although the three most commonly advertised pollen taxa were non-native. Our results suggest that including certain native prairie flower taxa in reconstructed prairies may increase the chances that colonies will use those prairies as major food sources during the period of greatest colony growth and honey production.

Plants are vital for honey production, supplying nectar and pollen that honey bees (Apis mellifera) use for nutrition and honey production. This study assessed the role of plant diversity and abundance in honey bee foraging in the semi-arid Dodoma region, Tanzania. Sampling plots were set up at 500 m intervals from beehives and observed for foraging bees from January to December 2023. I used negative binomial mixed-effect models to identify the factors influencing bee foraging and the number of flowers per plant. Bees were observed foraging on 21 plant species during the study period, with the majority being non-native shrubs and herbs. The number of foraging bees differed between plant species (χ221,347= 55.843, p < 0.001), where species that produce many flowers had more foraging bees. The number of foraging bees also varied between months (χ29,347= 80.22, p < 0.001), corresponding to the abundance of flowers in each month. Further, the number of foraging bees increased with plant diversity (χ21,347, = 11.847, p = 0.008) per plot. The study underscores the importance of plant diversity in providing a continuous supply of floral resources that sustain bee foraging activities and honey production. A diverse community of native and non-native flowering plants provides consistent foraging opportunities throughout the year. Thus, afforestation programs in the Dodoma region should prioritise the conservation of key plant species to support pollinators and enhance honey production.