Development of a line module type of SiC deformable mirror

In this paper we present the piezoelectric-driven deformable mirror for adaptive optics (AO). The deformable mirror, which is used to correct the disturbed wave front, is composed of a piezoelectric PZT film deposited on a SOI substrate. The mirror membrane of 15 mm in diameter was fabricated by etching the handle wafer, while the exposed oxide layer was coated by Al layer as a mirror surface. The individual Al electrodes were deposited on the PZT film to accomplish 19 PZT/Si unimorph actuator array. The dynamic deformation of the mirror was measured by a laser Doppler vibrometer and the large displacement more than 5 mum was obtained by the application of low voltage of 10 V. The deformation of the mirror according to Zernike's polynomials was examined and mirror surface to 3 <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">rd</sup> order Zernike modes could be generated

We propose a model-based approach to provide “open-loop” control, or precise go-to capability, for piezo actuated deformable mirrors (DMs) used in adaptive optics. Our DM model consists of a two-dimensional, linear partial differential equation known as the thin plate equation to describe the DM facesheet which is coupled to nonlinear scalar ordinary differential equations to describe the hysteretic actuators. Our control approach is carried out in two stages. In the first stage we compute actuator loads that drive the DM facesheet to a prescribed shape. The second stage involves the solution of “inverse” ordinary differential equations that provide the command voltages that induce actuator loads computed in the first stage. This work is significant in that it may enhance predictive and feed-forward control schemes in adaptive optics. Standard integral controllers, operating in closed loop, may also benefit since the gain may be increased.

Flexible structures occur in a large field of applications such as aerospace, biomedical, military applications. It involves many control problems ranging from vibration control to transient shape control. One of the most important applications of flexible structures is in adaptive optics. In this paper, a reducedorder controller design based on the internal model principle is proposed for deformable mirrors in adaptive optics. The finitedimensional model of the two-dimensional partial differential equation of the deformable mirror is obtained by applying the Galerkin approximation. Then, the balanced truncation method is applied to the controller of the high order finite-dimensional model of the deformable mirror. Simulation results show the success of the proposed method.

We propose a novel deformable mirror (DM) for adaptive optics in high power laser applications. The mirror is made of a Silicon carbide (SiC) faceplate, and cooling channels are embedded monolithically inside the faceplate with the chemical vapor desposition (CVD) method. The faceplate is 200 mm in diameter and 3 mm in thickness, and is actuated by 137 stack-type piezoelectric transducers arranged in a square grid. We also propose a new actuator influence function optimized for modelling our DM, which has a relatively stiffer faceplate and a higher coupling ratio compared with other DMs having thin faceplates. The cooling capability and optical performance of the DM are verified by simulations and actual experiments with a heat source. The DM is proved to operate at 1 kHz without the coolant flow and 100 Hz with the coolant flow, and the residual errors after compensation are less than 30 nm rms (root-mean-square). This paper presents the design, fabrication, and optical performance of the CVD SiC DM.

Author response: Retinal microvascular and neuronal pathologies probed in vivo by adaptive optical two-photon fluorescence microscopy

Decision letter: Retinal microvascular and neuronal pathologies probed in vivo by adaptive optical two-photon fluorescence microscopy

Editor's evaluation: Retinal microvascular and neuronal pathologies probed in vivo by adaptive optical two-photon fluorescence microscopy

Free-space optics (FSO) communication enjoys desirable modulation rates at unexploited frequency bands, however, its application is hindered by atmospheric turbulence which causes phase shifting in laser links. Although a single deformable mirror (DM) adaptive optics (AO) system is a good solution, its performance remains unsatisfactory as the proportion of tilts aberrations becomes relatively high. This condition happens when the incident angle of the laser beam for the optical receiver dynamically shifts. To tackle this problem, we introduce a fast steering mirror (FSM), DM cascaded AO architecture, based upon which we also propose an atmospheric turbulence compensation algorithm. In this paper, we compare the compensation ability of FSM and DM towards tilts aberrations. Furthermore, we gain model matrices for FSM and DM from testbed and simulatively verify the effectiveness of our work. For a Kolmogorov theory-based atmospheric turbulence disturbed incident laser beam where the tilt components take up 80% of the total proportion of wavefront aberrations, our proposed architecture compensates the input wavefront to a residual wavefront root mean square (RMS) of 116 wavelength, compared to 16 wavelength for single DM architecture. The study intends to overcome atmospheric turbulence and has the potential to guide the development of future FSO communications.

In an adaptive-optical (AO) system, the wavefront of optical beam can be corrected with deformable mirror (DM). Based on MicroElectroMechanical System (MEMS) technology, segmented micro deformable mirrors can be built with denser actuator spacing than continuous face-sheet designs and have been widely researched. But the influence of the segment structure has not been thoroughly discussed until now. In this paper, the design, performance and fabrication of several micromachined, segmented deformable mirror for AO were investigated. The wavefront distorted by atmospheric turbulence was simulated in the frame of Kolmogorov turbulence model. Position function was used to describe the surfaces of the micro deformable mirrors in working state. The performances of deformable mirrors featuring square, brick, hexagonal and ring segment structures were evaluated in criteria of phase fitting error, the Strehl ratio after wavefront correction and the design considerations. Then the micro fabrication process and mask layout were designed and the fabrication of micro deformable mirrors was implemented. The results show that the micro deformable mirror with ring segments performs the best, but it is very difficult in terms of layout design. The micro deformable mirrors with square and brick segments are easy to design, but their performances are not good. The micro deformable mirror with hexagonal segments has not only good performance in terms of phase fitting error, the Strehl ratio and actuation voltage, but also no overwhelming difficulty in layout design.

In the production of integrated circuits (e.g. computer chips), optical lithography is used to transfer a pattern onto a semiconductor substrate (wafer). For lithographic systems using light in the ultraviolet band (EUV) with a 13.5nm nm wavelength, only reflective optics with multi-layers can reflect that light by means of interlayer interference, but these mirrors absorb around 30% of the incident light. Depending on pattern and beam shape, there is a nonuniform light distribution over the surface of the mirrors. This causes temperature gradients and therefore local deformations, due to different thermal expansions. To improve the throughput (wafers per hour), there is a demand to increase the source power, that will increase these deformations even further. Active mirrors are a solution to correct these deformations by reshaping the surface. This thesis addresses the challenges to accurate deform a mirror with high repeatability, meeting the requirements for implementation in a lithographic illumination machine. The main design criteria are vacuum compatibility, actuator stroke and the distance between actuators. Four different experimental mirrors, with increasing complexity, are successfully designed, realized and validated. All mirrors are equipped with thermomechanical actuators to either bend, or axially deform them. These actuators are free from mechanical hysteresis and therefore have a high position resolution with high reproducibility. Extensive finite element analysis is done, to maximize actuator stroke and minimize input power. All mirrors are tested and validated with interferometer surface measurements and thermocouple temperature measurements. The first experimental mirror with one thermo-mechanical bending actuator is successfully built and tested (chapter 2). To obtain a high mirror deflection at a given inserted actuator power, aluminum is chosen as the actuator material. The mirror is made from Zerodur® like the mirrors in the first EUV lithographic demonstration machines. A mirror deformation of 4:7 nm/C is achieved, where the inserted actuator power is 0.044 C/mW, meaning 0:21 nm/mW. The measured characteristic time constant is 10 s, meaning that for a given input, 63% of the steady state stroke is reached within that time scale. All values are close to the predicted ones from the models and also meet the requirements for implementation. To further investigate the concept and to measure the mechanical and thermal actuator coupling, an experimental mirror with four actuators is designed, developed and validated (chapter 3). It is an extension of the mirror with one actuator. In a single actuator step-response, a mirror deflection of 3.4 nm/C is achieved. A design optimization is proposed and successfully tested which reduces the actuator coupling from 30% to 10%, while the mirror deflection at the same input is reduced to 55%. Actuator speed is demonstrated while simultaneously heating all actuators with 3mW, which correspond with a mirror deformation of 33 pm/s. When using an adaptive mirror in an EUV lithography system, actuator strokes of 1 nm/min are required. The demonstrated actuator speed of 33 pm/s = 2 nm/min meets that requirement. The third and fourth mirror have actuators placed perpendicular to the surface (chapter 4). By placing the actuators on a thin back plate, the force loop is localized and therefore a lower actuator coupling is achieved. The results obtained from the third mirror with 7 actuators are close to the predicted values from the static and thermal models. Based on these good results, this actuation principle is implemented in a smaller deformable mirror with 19 actuators inside a 25mm beam diameter. A linear relation between actuator power and temperature of 0.190 C/mW and between power and averaged interactuator stroke of 0.13 nm/mW is achieved. So, the successfully realized mirror deflection is 0:68 nm/ C and no hysteresis is observed. For both mirrors a support frame is developed, that minimizes introduced surface deformations by temperature variations. Thermal step responses are fitted and both heating and cooling characteristic time constants are 2:5 s. The thermal actuator coupling from an energized actuator to its direct neighbor is 6:0, to their neighbors it is 1:3%. The total actuator coupling is approximated around 10%, based on the good agreement between simulated and measured inter-actuator stroke. Finally, chapter 5 summarizes the main findings from the different deformable mirrors and compares them. Also, suggestions for future research are given for implementation into a lithographic machine.

We demonstrate the feasibility of glass membrane deformable mirror (DM) support structures intended for very high order low-stroke adaptive optics systems. We investigated commercially available piezoelectric ceramics. Piezoelectric tubes were determined to offer the largest amount of stroke for a given amount of space on the mirror surface that each actuator controls. We estimated the minimum spacing and the maximum expected stroke of such actuators. We developed a quantitative understanding of the response of a membrane mirror surface by performing a Finite Element Analysis (FEA) study. The results of the FEA analysis were used to develop a design and fabrication process for membrane deformable mirrors of 200 - 500 micron thicknesses. Several different values for glass thickness and actuator spacing were analyzed to determine the best combination of actuator stoke and surface deformation quality. We considered two deformable mirror configurations. The first configuration uses a vacuum membrane attachment system where the actuator tubes' central holes connect to an evacuated plenum, and atmospheric pressure holds the membrane against the actuators. This configuration allows the membrane to be removed from the actuators, facilitating easy replacement of the glass. The other configuration uses precision bearing balls epoxied to the ends of the actuator tubes, with the glass membrane epoxied to the ends of the ball bearings. While this kind of DM is not serviceable, it allows actuator spacings of 4 mm, in addition to large stroke. Fabrication of a prototype of the latter kind of DM was started.

The use of deformable mirrors (DMs) in adaptive optics (AO) systems allows for compensation of various external and internal optical disturbances during image aquisition. For example, an astronomical telescope equipped with a fast deformable secondary mirror can compensate for atmospheric disturbances and wind shake of the telescope structure resulting in higher image resolution [1–4]. In microscopy, deformable mirrors allow to correct for aberrations caused by local variations of the refractive index of observed specimen. Especially confocal and multi-photon microscopes particularly benefit from the improved resolution for visualization of cellular structures and subcellular processes [5, 6]. In addition, results of applied adaptive optics for detection of eye diseases and in vitro retinal imaging on the cellular level show promising examination and treatment opportunities [7–9].

While it is attractive to integrate a deformable mirror (DM) for adaptive optics (AO) into the telescope itself rather than using relay optics within an instrument, the resulting large DM can be expensive, particularly for extremely large telescopes. A low-cost approach for building a large DM is to use voice-coil actuators, and rely on feedback from mechanical sensors to improve the dynamic response of the mirror sufficiently so that it can be used in a standard AO control system. The use of inexpensive voice-coil actuators results in many lightly- damped structural resonances within the desired control bandwidth. We present a robust control approach for this problem, and demonstrate performance in a closed-loop AO simulation, incorporating realistic models of low-cost actuators and sensors. The first contribution is to demonstrate that high-bandwidth active damping can be robustly implemented even with non-collocated sensors, by relying on the "acoustic limit" of the structure where the modal bandwidth exceeds the modal spacing. Next we introduce a novel local control approach, which significantly improves the high spatial frequency performance relative to collocated position control, but without the robustness challenges associated with a global control approach. The combination of these "inner" control loops results in DM command response that is demonstrated to be sufficient for integration within an AO system.

Small MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) deformable mirror (DM) technology is of great interest to the adaptive optics (AO) community. These new, MEMS-DM's are being considered for many conventional AO applications since they posses some advantages over conventional DM's. The MEMS-DM technology is driven by the expectation of achieving improved performance with lower costs, low electrical power, high number of actuators, high production rates, and large reductions in structural mass and volume. In addition to the imaging community, the directed energy community is also interested in taking advantages of some of the characteristics which MEMS-DM's offer. The Air Force Research Laboratory has undertaken the challenge of developing and analyzing several continuous face-sheet MEMS-DM's designs. This paper proposes a simple controls loop computer model for a typical continuous reflective face-sheet MEMS-DM. There are a variety of MEMS-DM's which are being developed for the Air Force Research Laboratory. Data from a typical continuous reflective face-sheet MEMS-DM has been acquired and analyzed. From this data a model for a typical MEMS-DM device could be developed and verified. This MEMS-DM's data can be compared to previous design models which were developed in previous articles. In addition a feedback, closed adaptive optics loop can be designed and analyzed. The research goal is to get a realistic idea of the behavior and performance of these new, innovative devices.

Small Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) deformable mirror (DM) technology is of great interest to the adaptive optics (AO) community. These MEMS-DM's are being considered for many conventional AO applications since they posses some advantages over conventional DM's. The MEMS-DM technology is driven by the expectation of achieving improved performance with lower costs, low electrical power, high number of actuators, high production rates, and large reductions in structural mass and volume. In addition to the imaging community, the directed energy community is also interested in taking advantage of the characteristics which MEMS-DM's offer. Unlike imaging, the optical fill-factor of a high-energy laser DM, has to be essentially 100 percent! Many modern MEMS-DM designs consist of small, lightweight, segmented mirrors that can be precisely controlled. For high-energy laser applications, the MEMS DM's should have a continuous reflective face-sheet with no gaps. This continuous reflective face-sheet must include high-energy laser coatings, which render the face sheet very stiff. This is a new challenge for MEMS-DM's, which has not previously been addressed. The Air Force Research Laboratory has proposed to meet this challenge with several continuous face-sheet high-energy laser MEMS-DM's designs. This paper will give a generic description of a MEMS-DM computer model. The research goal is to develop a MEMS-DM model for closed loop control of a high-energy laser, MEMS-DM adaptive optics application.