Design of optimised dynamic PID sliding mode controller for PMSM in hybrid electric vehicle

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">In recent years, global warming, depletion of fossil fuels, and reducing pollution have become increasingly prominent issues, resulting in demand for environmentally-friendly two-wheeled vehicles capable of reducing CO2 emissions. However, it remains necessary to meet customers’ expectations by providing smaller drivetrains, lighter vehicles, and support for long-distance riding, among other characteristics. In the face of this situation, hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) systems are considered to be the most realistic method for creating environmentally-friendly powertrains and are widely used.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This research introduces a hybrid electric two-wheeled vehicle fitted with an electrical variable transmission (EVT) system, a completely new type of electrical transmission that meets the aforementioned needs, achieving enhanced fuel efficiency with a compact drivetrain. The EVT system comprises double rotors installed inside the stator. The hybrid electric two-wheeled vehicle equipped with the EVT system has the electric drive and regenerative braking functions of a fully electric vehicle, internal combustion start and power generation functions as an engine generator, and hybrid power generation functions, including combined power generation and drive through integrated control. The EVT system also provides boost acceleration functions and direct double rotor connection functions, offering wide-ranging advantages compared to conventional motorcycles and enabling the provision of new types of distinctive value.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The authors developed a prototype hybrid electric two-wheeled vehicle fitted with this unique EVT electrical transmission.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This article considers its qualities compared to other two-wheeled vehicles and describes the hybrid topology, the various functions of the EVT, the working principle of the EVT, the EVT configuration and the two-wheeled vehicle configuration, the prototype EVT machine, the EVT powertrain hybrid control strategy, the hybrid powertrain development environment, the results of hybrid electric two-wheeled vehicle performance measurements and the possibilities presented by hybrid electric two-wheeled vehicles.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Two widely available engine and hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) simulation packages have been integrated to reduce fuel consumption and pollutant emissions for a hybrid electric sport utility vehicle. WAVE, a one-dimensional engine analysis tool available from Ricardo Software, was used to model a 2.5L 103 kW Detroit Diesel engine. This model was validated against engine performance and emissions data obtained from testing in a combustion laboratory. ADVISOR, an HEV simulation software developed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in partnership with the Department of Energy (DOE), was used to model a 2002 Ford Explorer that is being converted into an HEV by the Penn State University FutureTruck team. By integrating the output file from WAVE as the input engine data file for ADVISOR, one can predict the effect of changes in engine parameters on vehicle emissions, fuel consumption, and power requirements for specified drive cycles. This information is used to optimize the HEV configuration (e.g., series versus parallel HEV) and control strategy (e.g., torque required from the IC engine versus the electric motor as a function of driver inputs and vehicle speed) for minimum overall vehicle fuel consumption and pollutant emissions.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This research represents a novel integration and application of two widely available simulation tools to advance the development of hybrid electric vehicles. The research was carried out in support of Penn State's FutureTruck project. FutureTruck is a DOE- and corporate-sponsored competition that challenges teams of students from 15 top North American universities to reengineer a conventional production sport utility vehicle into a low-emissions vehicle with at least 25% higher fuel economy without sacrificing the performance, utility, safety, and affordability that consumers want. Modeling and simulation are playing a key role in meeting these objectives.</div>

Energy conversion efficiency of hybrid electric heavy-duty vehicles operating according to diverse drive cycles

The main aim of this paper is to study the potential impacts in hybrid and full electrical vehicles performance by utilising continuously variable transmissions. This is achieved by two stages. First, for Electrical Vehicles (EVs), modelling and analysing the powertrain of a generic electric vehicle is developed using Matlab/Simulink-QSS Toolkit, with and without a transmission system of varying levels of complexity. Predicted results are compared for a typical electrical vehicle in three cases: without a gearbox, with a Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT), and with a conventional stepped gearbox. Second, for Hybrid Electrical Vehicles (HEVs), a twin epicyclic power split transmission model is used. Computer programmes for the analysis of epicyclic transmission based on a matrix method are developed and used. Two vehicle models are built-up; namely: traditional ICE vehicle, and HEV with a twin epicyclic gearbox. Predictions for both stages are made over the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC).The simulations show that the twin epicyclic offers substantial improvements of reduction in energy consumption in HEVs. The results also show that it is possible to improve overall performance and energy consumption levels using a continuously variable ratio gearbox in EVs.

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">With the depletion of petroleum resources around the world, the need to have fuel-efficient mobility solutions and sustainable alternative fuels for automobiles has become prominent. Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) and Battery Electric Vehicles have recently gained attention in terms of fuel-efficient mobility solutions. Recent research work by the authors of these articles and many other research groups have demonstrated the suitability of ammonia as a sustainable alternative power for automobiles [<span class="xref">1</span>, <span class="xref">2</span>, <span class="xref">3</span>, <span class="xref">4</span>, <span class="xref">5</span>, <span class="xref">6</span>, <span class="xref">7</span>, <span class="xref">9</span>, <span class="xref">18</span>]. Ammonia has been used for a long period of time mainly as an agricultural chemical and as a sustainable and carbon-free fuel and has substantial potential as a liquid fuel for mobile applications [<span class="xref">1</span>, <span class="xref">2</span>, <span class="xref">3</span>, <span class="xref">4</span>, <span class="xref">5</span>, <span class="xref">6</span>, <span class="xref">7</span>]. Ammonia-rich fuels can be used to run HEVs equipped with an Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) as the primary power source and a battery as the secondary energy source. When compared to conventional automobiles, HEVs have a complex powertrain with ICEs, high-voltage batteries, and electric motor-generators. Sophisticated control systems are used to control these components to satisfying the user power demands while achieving the best possible fuel economy. This sophisticated control system could be optimized to the fuel being used and many other driving conditions. The feasibility of the ammonia-rich fuel to power the existing ICEs of an HEV and the final fuel efficiency with an optimized control system for these fuel blends are studied in this research using an engine dynamometer setup to characterize the performance of the fuels and high fidelity computer-aided engineering (CAE) simulation model of a series HEV to optimize the control system and predict the fuel economy. CAE models eliminate the need of having expensive hardware prototypes required for preliminary stage feasibility studies of alternative energy applications. This paper also demonstrates the successful usage of CAE models in lieu of expensive hardware prototypes for such studies. Results from the engine dynamometer tests show that ammonia-rich fuels are capable of producing equal power and torque compared to baseline gasoline-only fuels. At higher engine speed ammonia-rich fuels are capable of producing about 5-8% more power and torque. CAE simulations show an ammonia-rich fuel has improved the fuel economy of the HEV by 2-22.75% (with and without control system optimization) over the baseline gasoline fuel when tested with Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulatory drive cycles. Finally, it is proven that ammonia, which is an already widely used chemical, could successfully be used to replace a part of the petroleum (gasoline) fuel requirements of existing ICEs and, if used with an optimized control system in an HEV ammonia-rich fuels, yields a higher fuel economy.</div></div>

Over the past few years Hybrid Electric and Electric propulsion systems have found significant attention as the most plausible substitute to fossil fuel based engines. Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) have been around for more than a decade and extensive research has been taken out to make these vehicles more efficient. With advances in technology, manufacturers such as Tesla and Chevrolet have successfully launched a number of Electric Vehicles (EV) in the past 5 years. In despite of all this success, HEVs and EVs currently face challenges in energy storage systems (ESS) with regard to a variety of parameters and to overcome these issues research has been done on different types of ESS systems to extend the range of such vehicles. Flywheel Energy Storage Systems (FESS) have regained interest in the last decade and the application of kinetic energy recovery system (KERS) in the Formula 1 has reinforced the case of using FESS in HEV and EV. In this study, the integration of an FESS system within a hybrid electric propulsion and an electric propulsion system is considered and with the help of Bond-Graphs as a multidisciplinary modelling tool the impact of this integration is analyzed and compared with each other.

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) and other advanced propulsion technologies offer greater fuel economy and lower pollutant and tailpipe emissions. Some experts regard the HEV technology as a practical, attractive solution to social concerns about fuel economy (and related fossil fuel conservation) and vehicle emissions. [<span class="xref">Maples 98</span>] The technology is practical; however, an HEV is more expensive to produce than a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE). In a world of limited resources and many petroleum users and emissions sources, the policy question is whether the best use of resources is to build HEV, to improve the fuel economy and lower emissions from other sources, or to devote the resources to other environmental projects.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">We compare the second generation (designed for the United States) Toyota Prius, to the conventional internal combustion engine Toyota Corolla. We examine both private (vehicle purchase price, maintenance, and fuel) and social (the pollutant [non-methane organic gases, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides] and carbon dioxide emissions) costs. For each of the vehicles, we evaluate lifetime vehicle exhaust emissions as well as upstream emissions from producing the fuel.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">We find that the second generation Prius is still not cost-effective in improving fuel-economy and lowering emissions. For the Prius to be attractive to U.S. consumers, the price of gasoline would have to be more than three times greater than the present level. To be attractive to regulators, the social value of abating tailpipe emissions would have to be 14 times greater than conventional values. Alternatively, the value of abating greenhouse gas emissions would have to be at least $220 per ton. We judge that any HEV would have a difficult time competing with the Corolla because of the Corolla's already high fuel economy and low pollutant emissions.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">We also examine the costs and benefits of making a GM Silverado pickup truck into a gasoline hybrid. Like the analysis of the Prius, we again find that the price of gasoline or social value of abating carbon dioxide would have to be higher than the base case values in order to payback the cost of converting the vehicle to an HEV. Finally, we find that at current gasoline prices and carbon dioxide valuation, a conventional vehicle would need to have a fuel economy of 13 mpg or less in order for a $4,000 cost of converting it to an HEV to get 30% better fuel economy would pay off. We conclude that HEV will not have significant sales unless fuel prices rise several-fold or unless regulators mandate them.</div>

Pure electric vehicles and vehicles driven with the combination of both internal combustion engines and electric motors and called hybrid electric vehicles were developed in the past with varying structural design and mechanical aspects. Also, there have been huge varieties of electrical side components of such vehicles like electric motors, power electronic converters, batteries, control systems, etc. Hybrid electric vehicles have gained a lot of attention due to their efficiency and flexibility in various modes of operation. To understand the strength of both the hybrid electric vehicle and the battery electric vehicles, it is important to understand the structural configurations of its variations and also the power flow in different modes of operation. In this chapter, a brief overview of different types of hybrid–electric and battery electric vehicles is discussed. The power flow in different modes of operations of all these vehicle types is discussed in detail with the power flow indicated in the schematic diagrams for various modes of power flow operations. The power flow control in all the modes is important to be understood to effectively design the EV system by suitably selecting all the sub-components required.KeywordsElectric vehicleHybrid electric vehicle configurationElectric vehicle architectureEnergy storage systemPower flowOperating modesPowertrain

By using the 2017 National Household Travel Survey (NHTS) data, this study explores the status quo of ownership and usage of conventional vehicles (CVs) and alternative fuel vehicles (AFVs), i.e., Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs), Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) and Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), in the United States. The young ages of HEVs (6.0 years), PHEVs (3.2 years) and BEVs (3.1 years) demonstrate the significance of the 2017 NHTS data. The results show that after two decades of development, AFVs only occupy about 5% of annual vehicle sales, and their share does not show big increases in recent years. Meanwhile, although HEVs still dominate the AFV market, the share of PHEVs & BEVs has risen to nearly 50% in 2017. In terms of ownership, income still seems to be a major factor influencing AFV adoption, with the median annual household incomes of CVs, HEVs, PHEVs and BEVs being $75,000, $100,000, $150,000 and $200,000, respectively. Besides, AFV households are more likely to live in urban areas, especially large metropolitan areas. Additionally, for AFVs, the proportions of old drivers are much smaller than CVs, indicating this age group might still have concerns regarding adopting AFVs. In terms of travel patterns, the mean and 85th percentile daily trip distances of PHEVs and HEVs are significantly larger than CVs, followed by BEVs. BEVs might still be able to replace CVs for meeting most travel demands after a single charge, considering most observed daily trip distances are fewer than 93.5 km for CVs. However, the observed max daily trip distances of AFVs are still much smaller than CVs, implying increasing the endurance to meet extremely long-distance travel demands is pivotal for encouraging consumers to adopt AFVs instead of CVs in the future.

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Aggressive driving is an important topic for many reasons, one of which is higher energy used per unit distance traveled, potentially accompanied by an elevated production of greenhouse gases and other pollutants. Examining a large data set of self-reported fuel economy (FE) values revealed that the dispersion of FE values is quite large and is larger for hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) than for conventional gasoline vehicles. This occurred despite the fact that the city and highway FE ratings for HEVs are generally much closer in value than for conventional gasoline vehicles. A study was undertaken to better understand this and better quantify the effects of aggressive driving, including reviewing past aggressive driving studies, developing and exercising a new vehicle energy model, and conducting a related experimental investigation. The vehicle energy model focused on the limitations of regenerative braking in combination with varying levels of driving-style aggressiveness to show that this could account for greater FE variation in an HEV compared to a similar conventional vehicle. A closely matched pair of gasoline-fueled sedans, one an HEV and the other having a conventional powertrain, was chosen for both modeling and chassis dynamometer experimental comparisons. Results indicate that the regenerative braking limitations could be a main contributor to the greater HEV FE variation under the range of drive cycles considered. The complete body of results gives insight into the range of fuel use penalties that results from aggressive driving and why the variation can be larger on a percent basis for an HEV compared to a similar conventional vehicle, while the absolute fuel use penalty for aggressive driving is generally larger for conventional vehicles than HEVs.</div></div>

Currently, the world is combating with diverse types of challenges related to climate change and fuel costs. However, the research field of the electrical vehicles has given a considerable substitute for conventional vehicles. Moreover, the global involvement in the advancement of Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) and Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles (PHEVs) is getting higher. The mountaineering prices and reducing oil under the earth is distressing the world’s economy adversely. In 1991, the battery market in the world was estimated to be at $21 Billion Dollars yearly by S.L Deshpande estimated. As of this present day, electric and hybrid electric vehicles have become more protuberant and widely accepted by the public, this indicates the battery market will be more than double the 1991 value by now. Because of the increase in the number of vehicle users, the rate of CO2 emissions has risen, drastically. These discharges, combined with the challenge of coming up with other energy sources for crude oil and natural gas have led to the success of the battery market, most particularly in the EV and HEV business. The demand for ecologically friendly vehicles has risen so that different research works have gone into battery cells technology to produce electric vehicles and to support internal combustion vehicles to form hybrid electric vehicles. The Lithium-ion, Lead-acid, Nickel Metal Hydride, Lithium battery are a few types of batteries used as energy storage systems to drive EV and HEV vehicles. Selection of a battery is based on efficiency, cost, durability, performance, power, energy, etc. This paper seeks to examine and discuss the utilization of different secondary batteries and their use as energy storage systems as well as in EVs and HEVs. The Lithium-ion battery will particularly be the center of discussion in this paper, its role in battery market and economics.

Recent advances in the US Department of Energy’s energy storage technology research and development programs for hybrid electric and electric vehicles

The work presented in this paper is a progression to previous research which developed an overcurrent-tolerant prediction model. This paper presents some of the modelling and development techniques used for the previous research, but more emphasis is placed on the requirements of the case study; whereby an aeroplane pushback tug is converted into a series Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV). An iterative design process enabled the traction motor, transmission, generator and battery pack parameters to be tailored for this vehicle’s unique duty cycle. A MATLAB/Simulink model was developed to simulate the existing internal combustion engine powertrain as well as the series HEV equivalent for comparative analysis and validation purposes. The HEV design was validated by comparing the simulation results to recorded real-world data collected from the existing vehicle (torque, speeds etc.). The HEV simulations provided greater fuel savings and reduced emissions over the daily duty cycle in comparison to the existing vehicle.

Energy consumption of electric vehicles based on real-world driving patterns: A case study of Beijing

Nowadays, the automotive industry faces significant challenges in improving energy efficiency and in order to protect the environment. This paper will investigate the potential of energy recovery systems to reduce the substantial waste energy generated by internal combustion engines. Thermal recovery technology including regenerative braking, mechanical flywheels, thermoelectric generators, and electric turbochargers all of these technologies can enhance vehicle energy efficiency. This paper investigates two criteria energy efficiency and feasibility. It has been determined that regenerative braking improves by up to 8% in fuel efficiency. mechanical flywheels improved by 11% in fuel efficiency. respectively. For TEG technology, under a specific environment and using Ck converters and MPPT control it shows an increase from 14.5% to 22.6%, but lower power output than the previous two technologies. For Electric Turbochargers, it achieves maximum values of 8.4% to 18.4% in enhancement in energy efficiency. The paper also focuses on the feasibility, of regenerative braking the semi-automatic turbocharger is better for driving, mechanical flywheels, compared to traditional hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), PS-FHV is a workable technology that provides greater fuel economy and quicker acceleration. For thermoelectric generators, it illustrates that it is possible to replace the traditional internal combustion engine with a thermoelectric generator in automotive powertrains and it is suited for future extended-range electric vehicles (EEVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). Lastly, regenerative braking provides a novel control strategy is the potential to improve both efficiency and safety. In summary, these technologies have significant potential to improve automotive energy efficiency, and future research could further optimize the application of these technologies to achieve higher energy efficiency and lower environmental impacts. The currently best technology for energy recovery is the regenerative braking and mechanical flywheels. However, thermoelectric generators can have the most potential in the future, especially in extended-range electric vehicles (EEVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). Based on the research, hybrid and extended-range electric vehicles have be potential for future markets.